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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
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A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
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通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
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据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
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''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
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我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
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''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
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''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
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A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
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“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
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”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
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我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
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分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
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2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
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3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
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Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
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2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
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3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
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在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
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政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
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政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
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上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
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Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
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Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
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Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
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Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
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Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
<br />
对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
<br />
在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
<br />
更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
<br />
感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
<br />
让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
<br />
-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
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We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
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下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
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5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
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During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
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历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
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考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
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Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
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目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
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前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
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'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
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To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
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This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
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以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
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例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
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除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
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20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
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考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
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一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
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I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
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''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
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In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
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In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
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“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
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为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
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'''2. 兼容性<br />
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为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
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首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
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'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
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There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
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然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
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'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
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《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
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'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
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According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
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小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
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The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
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《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
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'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
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Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
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然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
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德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
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'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
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情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
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While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
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A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
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另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
<br />
9. “非二进制小说”<br />
<br />
可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
“非二元”小说<br />
<br />
一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
<br />
10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
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1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
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2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
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3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
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4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
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6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
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1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
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2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
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3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
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4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
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8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
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9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
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7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
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8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
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9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
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1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
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2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
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3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
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4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
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6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
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5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
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8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
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9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
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1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
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3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
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4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
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5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
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4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
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1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
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3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
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4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
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5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
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7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
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8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
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9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
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6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
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7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
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8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
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1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
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2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
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'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
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1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
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2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
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4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
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5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
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6.Identity theft<br />
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3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
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4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
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5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
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6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
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1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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6.后果<br />
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1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
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3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
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4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
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5.Polarization of Society<br />
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6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
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7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
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2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
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3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
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4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
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5.社会的两极分化<br />
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6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
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7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
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3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
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4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
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5.社会两极分化<br />
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6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
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7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
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9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
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1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
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8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_cult&diff=11941120201228 cult2020-12-27T15:18:48Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
1. 道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。<br />
<br />
The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao.<br />
<br />
The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name.<br />
<br />
2. 子曰：“学而时习之，不亦悦乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”<br />
<br />
The Master said, To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsound even though one's merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?<br />
<br />
3. 菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。本来无一物，何处惹尘埃。<br />
<br />
No such thing as the Budhi tree,<br />
<br />
Nor a mirror stand that can be.<br />
<br />
There is nothing in the first place,<br />
<br />
Whereon can the dust and dirt creep?<br />
<br />
4. 生之享受包括许多东西：我们本身的享受、家庭生活的享受，树木、花朵、云霞、溪流、瀑布，以及大自然的形形色色，都足以称为享受；此外又有诗歌、艺术、沉思、友情、谈天、读书等的享受，后者的这些都是心灵交流的不同表现。<br />
<br />
The enjoyment of life covers many things: the enjoyment of ourselves, of home life, of trees, flowers, clouds, winding rivers and falling cataracts and the myriad things in Nature, and then the enjoyment of poetry, art, contemplation, friendship, conversation, and reading, which are all some form or other of the communion of spirits.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
1.老子曾做过周朝守藏史，后退隐，作《道德经》，其思想的核心是“道”。<br />
<br />
Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he retired from public life. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he lived in seclusion. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of his thoughts is "Tao".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before his retirement. Later he created the Tao Te Ching, of which the core thought is "Tao".--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.《论语》记录了孔子的言行。它涵盖了广泛的主题，从政治、哲学、文学和艺术到教育再到道德修养。<br />
<br />
The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature to art,and from education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Analects recorded Confucius' words and deeds. It covers a wide range of topics, from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.惠能禅学思想的主要特点是“识心见性”和“顿悟成佛”。<br />
<br />
The main features of Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are characterized by "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.《生活的艺术》是一本洗涤心灵的书籍，是一杯好茶，是一种良药。阅读此书能使我们被尘沙玷污的心灵洗涤，使我们能在嚣闹的城市中得到宁静。<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is a book for washing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts polluted by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is a book for refreshing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can purify our hearts tarnished by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is a book that cleanses the mind, a cup of good tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts stained with dust and allow us to find peace in noisy cities--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响 。<br />
<br />
Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, Tao Te Ching has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
<br />
The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thought, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
3.《慧能经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。<br />
<br />
The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is empty and unreal, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is illusory, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周。<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book after his study in the United States, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
<br />
1. Laozi in the Tao Te Ching explains that the Tao is not a "name" for a "thing" but the underlying natural order of the Universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe due to it being non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness.<br />
<br />
《道德经》中的老子解释道是不是“事物”的“名称”，而是宇宙的内在自然秩序，由于其非概念性但在生命力中很明显，其最终本质很难被限制。<br />
<br />
2. Analects is the China’s sacred book, the representative work of Confucianism. A collection of answers of dialogues between Confucius and his disciples.<br />
<br />
《论语》是中国的圣书，是儒家的代表作。孔子与门徒之间对话的答案的集合。<br />
<br />
3. Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.<br />
<br />
林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
<br />
==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路形成于汉武帝时期。南海航线从中国出发，向西航行，是海上丝绸之路的主线。<br />
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The maritime silk road was formed in the time of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty. The South China Sea route, which starts from China and sails westward, is the mainstream of the maritime silk road.<br />
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3.苏曼殊浪漫主义不是西学东渐的直接产物，而是固有文化生态发生结构变动之结果。<br />
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The formation of Su Manshu's romantic style was not the direct result of the eastward spread of Western learning but was the natural outcome of structural change in China's innate cultural ecosystem. <br />
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4.洋务派是中国近代最早的全面系统地接触近代科学技术的一个政治派别。<br />
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Advocates of the westernization movement was the first political school that touched modern science and technology comprehensively and systematically in China.<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。<br />
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1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.<br />
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2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.<br />
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3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。<br />
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3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.<br />
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4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。<br />
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4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。<br />
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''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
1.《道德经》九九八十一章，可理解为《道经》（上篇）和《德经》（下篇）两个部分，言简意赅、博大精深。大至宇宙、小至微尘，大无其外，小无其内；有修身、用人、治国。<br />
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The eighty-one chapters of the Tao Te Ching, which can be understood as two parts, the Tao Te Ching (upper part) and the De Te Ching (lower part), are concise and profound. It is as big as the universe and as small as the dust; there is no outside of the big and no inside of the small; there is the cultivation of the body, the use of people and the governance of the country.<br />
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2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br />
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The Analects, one of the classics of Confucianism, is mainly a collection of essays in the form of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on the political, aesthetic, moral, ethical and utilitarian values of Confucius.<br />
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3.相传，有一位名叫慧能的砍柴夫，虽然目不识丁，却开创了佛教的南禅宗派，提出“人人皆有佛性”，进而确立“顿悟成佛”之学。<br />
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According to legend, an illiterate woodsman called Huineng founded the "Sudden Enlightenment" or the Southern Chan School of Buddhism and propounded the idea that everyone possesses "the Buddha nature."<br />
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4.生活是10%的经历，和90%的态度。我们无时无刻不在书写我们的生活经历，我们可以选择生活的台词。当下，我们可以放下自我怀疑、愤怒、沮丧。当下，我们可以选择幸福。<br />
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Life is 10% what happens to you and 90% how you interpret it and put it into perspective.Right now we're writing our life stories, and we can choose how the script will read. Right now we can put behind us self-doubt, anger, frustration. Right now, we can choose happiness.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。<br />
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The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.<br />
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2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。<br />
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Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.<br />
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3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。<br />
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The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.<br />
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4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。<br />
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With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1. 写于两千多年前的《道德经》是真正的精神文学经典之一。它是一个培养和平、宁静和同情的指南。<br />
Written more than two thousand years ago, the Tao Te Ching is one of the true classics of spiritual literature. It is a guide to cultivating peace, serenity, and compassion.<br />
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2.《论语》写于春秋战国时期（约公元前479年至公元前221年），被认为是儒家思想最具代表性的著作之一，至今仍对中国文化和东亚产生了重大影响。<br />
Written during the Period of Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period (ca. 479 BC - 221 BC), the Analects are considered among the most representative works of Confucian thought, and still have a great influence on Chinese culture and East Asia.<br />
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3.慧能（638-713）也许是禅宗中最受人喜爱和尊敬的人物。他本是一个目不识丁的樵夫，却一下子获得了觉悟，成为中国禅宗的第六宗师，被誉为“顿悟派”的创始人。<br />
Hui-neng (638–713) is perhaps the most beloved and respected figure in Zen Buddhism. An illiterate woodcutter who attained enlightenment in a flash, he became the Sixth Patriarch of Chinese Zen, and is regarded as the founder of the "Sudden Enlightenment" school.<br />
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4.生活的艺术是对现代世界令人眼花缭乱的节奏的一种讽刺、诙谐的解毒剂。<br />
The Importance of Living is a wry, witty antidote to the dizzying pace of the modern world.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。<br />
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As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.<br />
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Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。<br />
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Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.<br />
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Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。<br />
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In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.<br />
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In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。<br />
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''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。<br />
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The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。<br />
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The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。<br />
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Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
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Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism to a certain extent, it did not make China prosperous and strong.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 《道德经》是中国古代哲学著作。又称《老子》，被道教作为重要经典收入道藏。共81章，分上、下篇。此刻通行本上篇言道，下篇言德。其中有不少和生活有关的处世哲理。<br />
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Tao Te Ching is an ancient Chinese philosophical work.Also known as Laozi, Taoism as an important classic into the Collection of Taoism. A total of 81 chapters, divided into the first and second. At this moment, the first text of the passage, the next text of virtue.There are a lot of life related philosophy.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，成书于战国前期。全书共20篇492章，以语录体为主，叙事体为辅，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record their words and deeds. It was written in the early period of the Warring States Period. The book consists of 20 chapters, with quotations as the main body and narration as the auxiliary body, which mainly reflects the political propositions, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and The Confucian school.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3 慧能俗姓卢，原籍河北范阳（今北京大兴）。他的父亲贬官到了岭南新州（今广东新兴），生下了慧能。慧能年轻时父亲去世，家境贫寒，靠打柴卖柴来养活母亲。<br />
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Hui Neng was born in Fanyang, Hebei province (now Daxing, Beijing).His father moved to New South Wales in the Lingnan region and gave birth to Huineng. When Huineng was young, her father died and her family was poor, so she sold firewood to support her mother.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 林语堂早年留学美国、德国，获哈佛大学文学硕士，莱比锡大学语言学博士。回国后在清华大学、北京大学、厦门大学任教。1945年赴新加坡筹建南洋大学，任校长。曾任联合国教科文组织美术与文学主任、国际笔会副会长等职。<br />
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Lin Yutang studied in the United States and Germany in his early years. He received his MA from Harvard University and his PhD in Linguistics from the University of Leipzig.After returning to China, he taught in Tsinghua University, Peking University and Xiamen University. In 1945, he went to Singapore to establish Nanyang University and became its president.He has served as director of Fine Arts and Literature of UNESCO and vice President of the International Pen Association.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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1.《道德经》内容涵盖哲学、伦理学、政治学、军事学等诸多学科，被后人尊奉为治国、齐家、修身、为学的宝典。它对中国的哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深远的影响，体现了古代中国人的一种世界观和人生观。<br />
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Tao Te Ching covers philosophy, ethics, political science, military science and many other disciplines, and is respected as a treasure of governing the country, regulating the family, cultivating self-cultivation and learning. It has a profound influence on Chinese philosophy, science, politics and religion, and embodies a world outlook and outlook on life of ancient Chinese.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。<br />
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The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the Late Spring and Autumn Period when Confucius set up a lecture platform, its main content had been initially created--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。<br />
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The text mainly records Huineng's life story and teachings. According to the theory of "self nature is pure", it advocates the basic ideas of "find one’s ture self" and "insight into Buddhism". The thought of ''Tanjing'' played an important role in the development of Zen.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.本书是一种私人的供状，供认我自己的思想和生活所得的经验。我不想发表客观意见，也不想创立不朽真理。我实在瞧不起自许的客观哲学。<br />
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This book is a personal confession of my own thoughts and experiences. I don't want to be objective and create immortal truth because I really despise the objective philosophy of self promise.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。<br />
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The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.<br />
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As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br />
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The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.<br />
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3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。<br />
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If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.<br />
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4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。<br />
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The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
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1-道德经，也被称为老子或老子，是中国传统文字，传统上被认为是公元前6世纪的圣人老子。文章的作者，撰写日期和编辑日期受到争议。<br />
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The Tao Te Ching, also known as Lao Tzu or Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.<br />
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The ''Tao Te Ching'', also known as Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2-《论语》约写于公元前500年，传统上归功于孔子。这段文字是由他的学生们在他去世后三十到五十年的时间内写的。<br />
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The Analects, were written about 500 BC and are traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his students over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.<br />
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''The Analects'', was written about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''The Analects'', was written in about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a period of time spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3-大建会能，又称禅宗第六祖或禅宗第六祖，是中国禅宗早期历史中的半传奇人物，但却是中心人物。根据传统，他是一个没有受过教育的外行，在听到《金刚经》后突然醒悟。<br />
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Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Chan, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Chan Buddhism. According to tradition he was an uneducated layman who suddenly attained awakening upon hearing the Diamond Sutra.<br />
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Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Zen, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Zen Buddhism. According to the tradition, he was an uneducated layman who suddenly awakened upon hearing the contents of ''Diamond Sutra''.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4-林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。<br />
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Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 07:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
1、据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。<br />
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According to UNESCO, ''the Tao Te Ching'' is the most widely translated cultural masterpiece in foreign languages after the ''Bible''.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。<br />
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Confucius was one of the most famous scholars in the society at that time. He was honored as "the sage of Heaven" and "the Wooden priest of Heaven" when he was alive. He was also honored as the sage of Confucius, the most holy, the most holy Teacher of Confucius, the most holy Master of Dacheng, the king of Wenxuan and the master of all ages by later rulers.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。<br />
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The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. According to the theory of "self-nature is pure and pure", it advocates the basic idea of "seeing nature with clear heart" and "becoming Buddha with enlightenment".--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来兮辞》，讲解了《圣经》故事，以及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月等等。<br />
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Lin yutang talked about in the book zhuangzi's indifferent, praised tao yuanming's leisurely, read the "I'm going home!", explained the bible stories, and how the Chinese tea, how do drinkers' wager game, how to view mountain, how to play water, how to look at the cloud, how to guide, how to grow flowers, birds, snow, rain, song of the wind, to month, and so on.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.法律制度是治国者统治人民的工具，是统治者为了保障自身的利益与维持社会秩序建构的国家机器，所以老子极力反对这些措施与法令制度。<br />
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The legal system is the ruler's tool for ruling the people, and is the state machine constructed by the ruler to protect his own interests and maintain social order. Therefore, Laozi strongly opposed these measures and decrees.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》是中国读书人的基础语言，并影响着全社会的思维结构。 中国文化是儒、道、佛三教的合流，但是，这三教在中国文化中的地位决不是三足鼎立的，儒家文化绝对是中国文化的主流，从汉代开始，它就是无可争议的主流意识形态。<br />
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The Analects is the basic language of Chinese scholars and influences the thinking structure of the whole society. Chinese culture is an amalgamation of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. However, these three religions are by no means a triumvirate in Chinese culture; Confucianism is definitely the mainstream of Chinese culture, and it has been the undisputed dominant ideology since the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.在我国佛教的发展历史上，惠能可以说是影响最大的高僧。南北朝初期达摩祖师入中土，开创禅宗。<br />
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In the history of Buddhism in China, the Huineng can be said to be the most influential monk. At the beginning of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Dharma entered China and started Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.《生活的艺术》一书，是汇集了许多中西思想家的思想, 再经过林语堂深思熟虑，书写自己的观念与真理的书。<br />
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''The Art of Living'' is a book that brings together the thoughts of many Chinese and Western thinkers, and then, after Lin Yutang's careful consideration, he writes his own concepts and truths.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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1.虽然丝绸之路是沿线各国共同促进经贸发展的产物，但很多人认为，中国的张骞两次通西域，开辟了中外交流的新纪元。从此，这条路线被作为“国道”踩了出来，各国使者、商人、传教士等沿着张骞开通的道路，来往络绎不绝。<br />
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The Silk Road is the product of joint economic and trade development of countries along the route, but many people think that Zhang Qian’s traveling to the West for two times launched a new era for China and foreign exchanges. Since then, this route was deemed as “international route” as envoys, merchants and missionaries came and went along the route opened by Zhang Qian.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.通过海上丝绸之路，中国还传播着民族工艺和儒道思想，对"海上丝路"沿线国家和地区以及欧洲各地产生不同程度的影响，甚至掀起了"中国热"。其中，瓷器和茶叶对世界有着很大的影响。<br />
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China spread its national craft, Confucianism and Taoism through the Maritime Silk Road, impacting countries along the route and European regions of varying degrees and even created “China fever”. Among them, porcelains and Tea have great influence upon the world.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。<br />
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Because of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people faced the fate of losing their country and families. Thus many scholars started to learn from western countries more positively and comprehensively, and a number of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a great amount of knowledge of natural science and social science and asked political reforms.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。京师同文馆、上海广方言馆以及江南制造局的译书馆，是当时翻译西方的中心。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br />
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During the 35 years of The Westernization Movement, the development of culture and publishing reached an unprecedented level. The Tongwenguan in Beijing, the Guangfangyanguan in Shanghai and the Yishuguan of the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau were the center of translating western works. The translation of books has gone through a process from purely Western scientific and technical works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences and humanities, with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。<br />
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When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.<br />
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2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”<br />
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It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。<br />
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After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.<br />
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4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。<br />
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The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
1. 《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。<br />
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The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion. According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most translated and published cultural masterpiece into foreign languages, except for the Bible.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。<br />
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The Analects covers politics, education, literature, philosophy, and the principles of living in the world. As early as the late Spring and Autumn period, when Confucius set up a forum to teach, the main content of the Analects was already in its infancy.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.《六祖坛经》记载惠能一生得法传法的事迹及启导门徒的言教,内容丰富,文字通俗,是研究禅宗思想渊源的重要依据。<br />
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The Sutra of Hui-neng is a richly written account of Hui-neng's life and teachings of his disciples, also working as an important basis for studying the origins of Zen’s thought.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 读书使人得到一种优雅和风味，这就是读书的整个目的。读书并不是要“改进心智”，若是如此，一切读书的乐趣便丧失净尽了。<br />
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4. Reading gives one a grace and flavor, and that is the whole purpose of reading. Reading is not to "improve the mind"; if it were, all the pleasure of reading would be lost.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reading gives people an elegance and flavor, which is the whole purpose of reading.Reading is not meant to " improve the mind "; if so, all the pleasure of reading is lost.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。<br />
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1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。<br />
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2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。<br />
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3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。<br />
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4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。<br />
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The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion . According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most popular translated and published cultural masterpiece in foreign languages, except for the Bible.<br />
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2.《论语》中的第一句话就是“学而时习之，不亦说乎？”可见，孔子狠强调学用结合、学以致用、言行相符。<br />
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The opening sentence of The Analects of Confucius says, “It is indeed a pleasure to acquire knowledge and, as you go on acquiring, to put into practice what you have acquired.” From here we see that Confucius emphasized the integration of learning with application and the consistence of words and actions.<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。<br />
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The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. The ideas of the Tanjing played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism. This is the only Chinese Buddhist work that has been honored as a "sutra".<br />
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4.1939年，林语堂在美国纽约的世界笔会上发表了一篇《希特勒与魏忠贤》的演讲。他说，当今德国人有人把希特勒比为耶稣，由此他想起中国明朝有一位读书人倡议一说，称颂魏忠贤与孔夫子应当有同样的地位。<br />
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In 1939, Lin Yutang made a speech entitled “Hitler and Wei Zhongxian” at a PEN meeting held in New York City. reminded him of a Chinese scholar of the Ming Dynasty, who advocated that Wei Zhongxian, the then dictatorial chief palace eunuch, be ranked as equal of Confucius--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。<br />
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Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Dao" and "De" : "Dao" is not only the way of universe and nature, but also the method of individual cultivation; "De" is not the morality or virtue as commonly thought, but the special world view, methodology and way of dealing with people that a monastic should have.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。<br />
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The Analects, one of the Confucian classics，is a collection of quotations and essays, which records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. It embodies Confucius' thoughts in politics, aesthetics, moral ethics and utilitarianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。<br />
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The Sutra of Huineng, the only one Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", contributes a lot to the development of Zen.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Sutra of Hui-neng, the only Chinese Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来辞》，还讲解了《圣经》故事，谈及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月，等等。<br />
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In his book, Lin talked about the unworldliness of Chuang Tzu, praised the leusure of Tao Yuanming，and read one of Tao's prose named On Returning Home. He also explained the stories of the Bible, talked about how the Chinese people taste tea,play drinking games, watch mountains and waters, observe clouds and rocks, raise flowers and birds, enjoy the snow, listen to rain, and enjoy the air and the moon.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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In the book, Lin Yutang talks about Zhuangzi's indifference, praises Tao Yuanming's leisure, reads the song of returning home, and explains the story of the Bible. He talks about how Chinese people drink tea, how to drink, how to watch mountains, how to play with water, how to see clouds, how to learn from stones, how to raise flowers, keep birds, watch snow, listen to rain, recite wind, and play with the moon, and so on.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
1.丝绸之路全程，从西安经安西、喀什噶尔、撒马尔罕和塞流西亚，直至推罗，直线距离是4200英里，如果加上沿途绕弯的地方，总共约有6000英里，相当于赤道的四分之一。<br />
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The Silk Road runs from Xi'an through Anxi, Kashgar, Samarkand and Seleucia to Tyre at a straight distance of 4200 miles, or about 6000 miles, or a quarter of the equator, if combined with the curving.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路是指古代中国与世界其他地区进行经济文化交流交往的海上通道。2000 多年前，一条以中国徐闻港、合浦港等港口为起点的海上丝绸之路成就了世界性的贸易网络。<br />
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Maritime Silk Road refers to ancient China and the rest of the world for economic and cultural exchanges of the sea channel.More than 2000 years ago, a maritime Silk Road, which started with ports such as China's Xuwen Port and Hepu Port, became a worldwide trading network.<br />
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3.随着西学大举东来，国内知识分子的大力鼓吹，使得妇女问题开始受到社会的重视。<br />
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With the western learning coming to the east in a large scale, the domestic intellectuals advocated vigorously, so that women's issues began to receive social attention.<br />
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4.自全球化进程不断加快以来，中国教育已无可避免地成为世界教育的一部分。西学的存在,对我国教育界的认识论和理论体系，带来了什么挑战和启示呢?<br />
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Since the accelerating process of globalization, China's education has inevitably become a part of the world's education.What challenges and enlightenment does the existence of western learning bring to the epistemology and theoretical system of education in China? <br />
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
1.以“道”解释宇宙万物的演变，即“道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物”，“道”乃“夫莫之命而常自然”，因而“人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然”。<br />
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He used "Tao" to explain the evolution of all things in the universe, that is, "Tao generates one, two, two generates three, three generates all things", "Tao" is "Fu Mo's life is always natural", so "man follows earth, earth follows heaven, heaven follows Tao, Tao follows nature".--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成;孔子去世以后，他的弟子和再传弟子代代传授他的言论，并逐渐将这些口头记诵的语录言行记录下来。<br />
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The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the late spring and Autumn period when Confucius set up an altar to give lectures, its main content had been initially created; after Confucius died, his disciples and his disciples taught him his words from generation to generation, and gradually recorded these oral quotations, words and deeds.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。直接契证觉性，便是顿悟。他说自心既不攀缘善恶，也不可沉空守寂，即须广学多闻，识自本心，达诸佛理。<br />
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Huineng's Zen is based on Dinghui. He thinks that consciousness is there and worry is not. The direct evidence of consciousness is epiphany. He said that the self mind should neither climb up to good and evil, nor sink into silence. That is to say, it is necessary to learn a lot, to know the self mind, and to reach all Buddhist principles.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.只有快乐的哲学，才是真正深湛的哲学；西方那些严肃的哲学理论，我想还不曾开始了解人生的真义哩。 在我看来，哲学的唯一效用是叫我们对人生抱一种比一般人较轻松较快乐的态度。——林语堂《生活的艺术》<br />
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Only the philosophy of happiness is really profound philosophy; I don't think those serious western philosophical theories have begun to understand the true meaning of life. In my opinion, the only effect of philosophy is to make us have a more relaxed and happy attitude towards life than ordinary people. ——The Importance of Living by Lin Yutang--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。<br />
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Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br />
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Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br />
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Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。<br />
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In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。<br />
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The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。<br />
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In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响.<br />
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"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, religion, etc.<br />
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"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion, etc.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。<br />
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"The Analects of Confucius" is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.<br />
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''The Analects of Confucius''is a collection of quotations compiled byConfucius' disciples and their retransmitters to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.《坛经》是禅宗的主要经典之一,主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教.<br />
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The Tantra is one of the main Zen classics, mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.<br />
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The ''Tantra'' is one of the main classics of Zen , mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，中等文化的读者都能看懂，这也是他探索的结果。<br />
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Lin Yutang's translation features are easy to understand and can be understood by readers of intermediate culture. This is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lin Yutang's translation is characterized by its fluency and comprehensiveness, which is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。<br />
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The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1.老子生于春秋战国时期，当时的环境是周朝势微，各诸侯为了争夺霸主地位，战争不断。严酷的动乱与变迁，让老子目睹到民间疾苦，作为周朝的守藏史，于是他提出了治国安民的一系列主张。<br />
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Laozi was born in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. At that time, the Zhou Dynasty was in a weak state. As the official historian of Zhou Dynasty, Lao Zi put forward a series of propositions of governing the country and keeping the people safe.<br />
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2.作为儒家经典的《论语》，其内容博大精深，包罗万象，《论语》的思想主要有三个既各自独立又紧密相依的范畴：伦理道德范畴——仁，社会政治范畴——礼，认识方法论范畴——中庸。<br />
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As a Confucian classic, the Analects of Confucius has a broad and profound content and is all-embracing. The thoughts of the Analects of Confucius mainly consist of three independent and closely related categories: ethical and moral category -- benevolence, social and political category -- rites, and cognitive methodology category -- the doctrine of the mean.<br />
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3.慧能偈曰：<br />
菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。<br />
本来无一物，何处惹尘埃？<br />
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My stanza read: <br />
There is no Bodhi-tree, <br />
Nor there’s a mirror bright. <br />
Since all is void in fact,<br />
Say, where can dust alight?<br />
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4.幽默大师林语堂以人生优游者的独特视角，诠释中国人“生活的艺术”，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。<br />
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Lin Yutang, a humorist, interprets the "art of life" of The Chinese people from the unique perspective of a good traveler in life, showing a unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life and intelligent life.<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.《道德经》不仅在中国影响深远而广泛，而且漂洋过海，传遍了世界五大洲，深受外围人的青眯，引起浓厚的学习兴趣和研究热情。他们赞誉《道德经》为“东方智慧的结晶”。当代西方流行广泛的一句话，就是老子是国际性的，目前研究老子思想已成为一种国际性的文化现象。<br />
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''The Tao Te Ching'' not only has a far-reaching influence in China, but also has spread all over the five continents of the world. They praised''the Tao te ching'' for the “crystallization of Eastern Wisdom. A popular saying in the west today is that Laozi is international, and the study of Oigo’s thought has become an international cultural phenomenon.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.作为儒家最经典和最受欢迎的著作，《论语》不仅是中国传统最核心的作品之一，而且是中国人伦理道德标准和行为准则的核心。《论语》中蕴含的儒家思想是中华民族的宝贵财富。自从16世纪末以来，《论语》被中西方学者源源不断地翻译，并且传播到世界各地。<br />
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As the most classical and popular works of Confucianism, ''the Analects'' is not only one of the core works of Chinese tradition, but also the core of Chinese ethical standards and codes of conduct. The Confucian thought contained in ''the Analects'' is the precious wealth of the Chinese nation. Since the end of the 16th century, ''the Analects'' has been continuously translated by Chinese and Western scholars and spread all over the world.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.《慧能经》不仅是研究惠能思想的重要资料,而且是具有中国特色的佛教禅宗一派的重要经典,在中国佛教思想史、哲学史上具有深远的影响。<br />
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''The Sutra of Huineng'' is not only an important material to study Huineng’s thought, but also an important classic of Zen Buddhism with Chinese characteristics. It has a far-reaching influence on the history of Chinese Buddhist thought and philosophy.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.《生活的艺术》是一本与你畅谈如何听风赏月的家常闲聊，又是一本关乎生活态度甚至生活智慧的严肃论文。林语堂从生活、家庭、文化、旅行、思想、宗教等方面探讨人必须学会享受生命。<br />
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''The Importance of Living'' is a book about how to feel the wind, enjoy the moon. It is also a serious essay about life attitude and even life wisdom. Lin Yutang analyzed from the aspects of life, family, culture, travel, thought, religion and so on. Then he drew a conclusion that people must learn to enjoy life.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_cult&diff=11937820201221 cult2020-12-27T14:17:22Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆 */</p>
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<div>==Alsied, Saffana==<br />
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。 这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。<br />
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他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。 结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。 这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。 仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。<br />
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3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West. <br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。 同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。 他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。 同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便 建立现代国防。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。<br />
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第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。 这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
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1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。<br />
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The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。<br />
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During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。<br />
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Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。<br />
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The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
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1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。<br />
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The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.<br />
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The Silk Road is not only a commercial avenue for exchanges of needed goods between ancient Asia and Europe, but also a road of friendship that promotes friendly communications, and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.<br />
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Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He received international concerns not only because of his navigation skills which surpassed the Westerners, but also for a cultural spirit he represented.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。<br />
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The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning means to instill western academics into China so as to make it more civilized and prosperous.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Under the traditional agricultural system, China was too vulnerable to face challenges from the British, which was already a modern and highly industrialized country after the bourgeois revolution.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Dashkin, Gennadii==<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
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A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。<br />
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An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。<br />
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From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。<br />
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Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。<br />
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Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。<br />
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Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。<br />
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Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。<br />
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During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。<br />
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The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Grosheva, Anna==<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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==Guirou, Barthelemy==<br />
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1. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE.<br />
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丝绸之路是一条古老的贸易路线网，在中国汉朝期间正式建立，它连接了公元前130年至1453年之间的古代世界贸易地区。<br />
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2. The maritime Silk Road was a conduit for trade and cultural exchange between China's south-eastern coastal areas and foreign countries. There were two major routes: the East China Sea Silk Route and the South China Sea Silk Route .<br />
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海上丝绸之路是中国东南沿海地区与外国之间进行贸易和文化交流的渠道。有两条主要路线：东中国海丝绸之路和南中国海丝绸之路。<br />
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3. The Westernization Movement, also called the Self-Strengthening Movement, was championed by some Qing government officials from the early 1860s to the middle 1890s. Its aim was to introduce Western technology and modern industrial equipment. This nationwide movement failed because its advocates were unwilling to disturb the status quo of the ruling class. The Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1804 and ended with the annihilation of China’s Beiyang Fleet, exposed the utter failure of the three-decade-long Westernization Movement. As a result, reform-minded Chinese had to seek new ways to save the nation.<br />
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自1860年代初至1890年代中期，一些清政府官员就发起了洋务运动，也被称为自强运动。其目的是引进西方技术和现代工业设备。这项全国性运动失败了，因为其拥护者不愿打扰统治阶级的现状。抗日战争始于1804年，结束于北洋舰队的歼灭。这场长达3年之久的洋务运动彻底失败了。结果，具有改革意识的中国人不得不寻求新的方法来拯救国家。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。<br />
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The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。<br />
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Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.<br />
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Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.<br />
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4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。<br />
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The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。 前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。<br />
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Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。 海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。 前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。<br />
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The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
1.人们通常讲"丝绸之路"的开端,都是从汉代张骞通西域开始,他的"凿空"事业居功至伟,标志着"丝绸之路"的正式开通。<br />
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People usually talk about the beginning of the "Silk Road", are from the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian through the Western Regions began, his "chiseling" business is a great credit, marking the official opening of the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.在15世纪的明朝永乐时期,郑和七下西洋,将先进的中华物质文化、精神文化和政教文化远播海外,谱写了人类航海史上的新篇章,稳定了当时的东南亚国际秩序,开辟了中国—印度洋航路,将古代海上丝绸之路推向鼎盛。<br />
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In the 15th century, during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He made seven trips to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material, spiritual, political and religious culture overseas, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order in Southeast Asia at that time, opening up the China-Indian Ocean route, and bringing the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its heyday.<br />
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3.近代的西学东渐,对中国社会产生了广泛而深远的影响,改变了中国人对外部世界的认识。几乎所有的西学门类,以及各种各样的思潮、学说、观念都先后传入中国,在新与旧、古与今、中与外的碰撞中,中国的各种学术得到了极大的开拓和发展。<br />
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The Western learning in modern times had a wide and far-reaching impact on Chinese society and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all the Western disciplines, as well as all kinds of ideas, doctrines and concepts, were introduced to China one after another, and in the collision between the old and the new, the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign, Chinese scholarship was greatly developed.<br />
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4.洋务运动是我国近代教育史的开端,可以说,它不仅是对我国传统教育的一次重要变革,更是我国现代教育制度萌芽的一个重要时期。<br />
The westernization movement is the beginning of China's modern education history, it can be said that it is not only an important change to China's traditional education, but also an important period for the sprouting of China's modern education system.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。<br />
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By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met. <br />
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In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。<br />
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Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。<br />
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The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。<br />
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The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。 <br />
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Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。<br />
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Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。<br />
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Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。<br />
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The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。<br />
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Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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==Lo, Minh Thao==<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。<br />
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Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。<br />
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Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
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Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。<br />
A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。<br />
Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.<br />
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3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times.<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。<br />
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。<br />
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Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.<br />
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Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。<br />
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The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.<br />
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Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。<br />
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In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".<br />
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3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
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From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.<br />
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4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。<br />
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During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.<br />
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2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.<br />
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3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.<br />
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4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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==Phyo, Su Kyi==<br />
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.<br />
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Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.<br />
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Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。<br />
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Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.<br />
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Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。<br />
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The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.<br />
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The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。<br />
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The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi<br />
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The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Pingki, Tanchangya==<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
1、丝绸之路是起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线，最初的作用是运输古代中国出产的丝绸、瓷器等商品，后来成为东方与西方之间在经济、政治、文化等诸多方面进行交流的主要道路。<br />
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The Silk Road was an ancient overland commercial and trade route connecting Asia, Africa and Europe that started from ancient China. Its initial function was to transport commodities such as silk and porcelain produced in ancient China. Later, it became the main road for economic, political and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举， 对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。 晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were an unprecedented feat in the maritime history of the world at the beginning of the 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Zheng himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and memory of the world. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Zheng has achieved rapid development, but many important issues are still not conclusive.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、徐光启，上海人，是自李时珍后的明代又一位杰出的科学家。他生于嘉靖41年即公元1562年，父亲是个小商人，家里有一点土地，但日子过得并不宽裕，所以徐光启从小就从事农业生产劳动，这对他后来的成长有很大影响。<br />
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Xu Guangqi, a Native of Shanghai, was another outstanding scientist in the Ming Dynasty after Li Shizhen. He was born in 1562, the year of the 41st emperor jiajing. His father was a merchant and his family had a little land, but his life was not very well-off. Therefore, Xu Guangqi was engaged in agricultural production and labor from an early age, which had a great influence on his later growth.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。<br />
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Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Rajabov, Anushervon==<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
1.丝绸之路促进了中外经济文化的交流，也密切了汉族与沿途的其他少数民族的关系，促进了我国西北地区的开发。<br />
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The Silk Road has enhanced economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, as well as closer relations between the Han nationality and other minorities along the route, and promoted the development of the northwest China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.21世纪海上丝绸之路的战略合作伙伴并不仅限与东盟，而是增进同沿边国家和地区的交往，串起连通东盟、南亚、西亚、北非、欧洲等各大经济板块的市场链，发展面向南海、太平洋和印度洋的战略合作经济带，以亚欧非经济贸易一体化为发展的长期目标。<br />
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The strategic partners of the Maritime Silk Road in the 21st century are not only limited to ASEAN, but also to promote exchanges with countries and regions along the border, linking the market chains of ASEAN, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Europe and other major economic sectors, and developing a strategic cooperative economic belt for the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, with Asia-Europe and Africa economic and trade integration as the long-term goal of development.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.发生在明末清初并且延续到清朝中叶，伴随着耶稣会士来华传教而展开的西方科技传入中国的历史事件，被称为西学东渐第一波。它给中国科技发展带来了全新的可能性。<br />
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The historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China, which took place in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and lasted until the middle of the Qing dynasty, accompanied by the Jesuits' mission to China, is known as the first wave of The Eastward Spread of Western Learning. It brings new possibilities to the development of science and technology in China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动虽然有种种缺陷和弊端，但主要历史作用是积极的，是中国近代史上的一次进步运动。它促进了民族资本主义的发展，延缓了而不是加速了中国半殖民地化的进程。<br />
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Although the Westernization Movement has various defects and drawbacks, its main historical role is positive. As a progressive movement in the modern history of China, it promoted the development of national capitalism and delayed rather than accelerated the process of China's semi-colonization.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。<br />
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The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。<br />
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Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。<br />
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The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。<br />
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Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。<br />
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。<br />
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.<br />
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At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。<br />
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.<br />
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During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。<br />
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.<br />
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3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。<br />
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3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。<br />
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The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.<br />
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2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。<br />
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China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that. <br />
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3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。<br />
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In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。<br />
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4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。<br />
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Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。<br />
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The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。<br />
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1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. <br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。<br />
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2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.<br />
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3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。<br />
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3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.<br />
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4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。<br />
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4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。<br />
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After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。<br />
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Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。<br />
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Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。<br />
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The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。<br />
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Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。 <br />
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The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。 <br />
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Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。<br />
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Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.<br />
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3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。<br />
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The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.<br />
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4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。<br />
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Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。<br />
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The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。<br />
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Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
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During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。 其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。<br />
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The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
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The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。<br />
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The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，<br />
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The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
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The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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丝绸之路是汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，为汉朝的强大，乃至整个中华民族的强大奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
Silk Road, a significant path of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries during the Han and Tang Dynasty, which lasted for over thousand years, laying a solid foundation for greatness of the Han Dynasty, and even that of the whole Chinese nation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回望历史，浩浩荡荡，郑和七下西洋堪称中国“海上丝绸之路”最壮丽的诗篇，也是人类航海史第一个高峰。<br />
Looking back at the history, Zheng He’s seven voyages to the wast was the most magnificent poem of China’s “Maritime Silk Road”, as well as the first peak in the history of human navigation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。<br />
After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of foreigners and "learn from the advanced technologies in the West in order to resist the invasion of the Western powers.”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as self-improvement movement, was a self-saving movement that westernization school in the late Qing Dynasty introduced western military equipments, machine production, science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。<br />
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The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。<br />
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In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。<br />
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After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。<br />
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Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。<br />
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Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。<br />
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In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。<br />
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The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.<br />
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2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”<br />
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The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
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The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
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The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。<br />
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Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.<br />
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2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
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Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.<br />
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3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。<br />
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Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.<br />
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4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。<br />
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The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。<br />
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Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which originated from ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。<br />
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Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Maritime Silk Road is the sea route through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with foreign countries. This Silk Road centered on the South China Sea, thus being called the South China Sea Silk Road as well.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。<br />
<br />
Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic course of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty to the modern times.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。<br />
<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, was a self-helping movement carried out by the westernization group of the late Qing dynasty from the 1860s to 1990s for introducing Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to China to save the Qing government.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。<br />
<br />
After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.<br />
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2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。<br />
<br />
Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.<br />
<br />
3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。<br />
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At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.<br />
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4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。<br />
<br />
In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。<br />
<br />
The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。<br />
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The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。<br />
<br />
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。<br />
<br />
Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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==Zubareva, Ekaterina==</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_1&diff=11845020201215 cultexam 12020-12-21T13:00:43Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing */</p>
<hr />
<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
<br />
'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
*Please add a "Questions" section.<br />
*Please add a "Answers" section.<br />
<br />
==Chinese Astrology - Alsied, Saffana==<br />
"Chinese Astrology"--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED ,Student No:201921080006.. Major..Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural studies.<br />
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===The History===<br />
<br />
So, what is Chinese astrology anyway? Chinese astrology is an ancient art, which uses the time of birth, including the year, month, day, and time, to reveal insights into a person’s personality traits, lifestyle, health, career direction, and compatibility with others. Although the exact origin of the system is unknown, Chinese astrology has guided the Chinese for over five thousand years and has a profound influence on our lives. The Chinese system of zodiac is actually based on a ten-year Sun-Moon cycle that conforms to the ancient Chinese agricultural calendar. The cycle is divided into the five elements: Water, Wood, Fire, Earth, and Metal as well as the twelve animals, which represent each year. The system is influenced by Yin (female) and Yang (male) cosmic force, which is said to be an interpretation of universal harmony and balance. where the source is coming from ?<br />
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===The Five Elements And YIN/YANG===<br />
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Chinese believe that the five basic elements, Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water form everything in the Universe. As a fundamental part of the Oriental philosophy, the five elements are divided into Conducive and Controlling interrelationships. A Conducive interrelationship means that these five elements will produce one another and help nourish each other. We get Fire from Wood because fire is produced by burning wood. We get Earth from Fire because fire can burn everything into ashes (earth). We get Metal from Earth because all metal has to be extracted from the earth. We get Water from Metal because metal will change into liquid when heated. And, from Water we get Wood because water nourishes plants, thus producing wood. where is the quotation please?<br />
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A Controlling interrelationship means that these five elements can control or be destroyed by another element. Wood controls Earth because trees draw nourishment out of the earth. Earth controls Water because the earth can absorb water and also blocks the flow of water through man-made dykes or naturally occurring phenomena. Water controls Fire because the water is used to put out fires. Fire controls Metal because the heat of a fire can melt metal. And, Metal controls Wood because trees can be chopped down by the metal blade of an ax. Under this philosophy, no element is considered the strongest or weakest. Each element is either controlled by another element or can produce another element. In fact, they are dependent on one another and therefore, are considered equal. In Chinese astrology, during the complete sixty-year cycle, each of the animal signs is combined with the five main elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The element of your zodiac sign will exercise its influence on your life. where is the quotation please?<br />
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===THE FORCES OF YIN / YANG===<br />
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Since ancient times, the Chinese have believed that two major forces, the Yin and the Yang, control the universe. These two forces are the foundation of Chinese philosophy, people, and even Chinese medicine. Generally speaking, the Yin signifies death whereas the Yang indicates life.<br />
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A well-known symbol called “Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) embodies the Yin and the Yang. In the circle, the two forces equilibrate the energy and keep everything balanced. No force is stronger or weaker than the other, when one is at its highest, the other is at its lowest. Together the Yin and the Yang become a whole and thus keep the universe in harmony. where the source is coming please?<br />
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Chinese astrology was invented to achieve the two following goals;<br />
<br />
1.) To predict the future,<br />
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2.) To determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise. <br />
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According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu, and is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to predict one's fortune. Chinese Astrology Signs are based on the year that a person is born, with each of the twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs being represented by a particular animal. The twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs are; Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. It is felt in Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year. where the source is coming please ?<br />
<br />
Today, the Chinese Zodiac constitutes as a significant part of the traditional Chinese culture. At festive events paper-cut and New-Year pictures of the Chinese Zodiac are popular among the Chinese people. In addition, the Chinese Zodiac is also seen as the symbol of China itself, enforcing its vital role within Chinese culture, although the dragon is the most recognized totem of the Chinese nation. quotation please?<br />
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The Chinese Zodiac plays a part within people's religious beliefs in China. The 12 animals are divided into two categories of Yin and Yang, which are the underlying principles of Chinese philosophy and medicine by ancient Chinese people in accordance with the Five Elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). A set of fortunetelling methods proclaim that the twelve Chinese horoscope animals decide people's, as a result, the Chinese Zodiac began to play a crucial part in people’s characters, friendships, marriages, careers, health, fortune and other vital parts of their life. Within Chinese astrology, it is considered that when a person comes to their attributed year, which is decided by the year when they were born, they must wear a red belt to pursue good fortune and avoid bad luck. This custom of 'Birth Year' is widespread throughout China.quotation please?<br />
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You might also be surprised to hear that according to some astrologers, your Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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1. Chinese Astrology 中国占星学<br />
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2. Chinese Zodiac 中国十二生肖<br />
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3. Agricultural calendar 农业日历<br />
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4. ”Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) “太极拳”（终极目标）<br />
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5. The Oriental philosophy 东方哲学<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1-Why was Chinese astrology invented?<br />
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2-How Chinese astrology relates to a person’s divine destiny?<br />
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3-What important role does the Chinese zodiac play in Chinese culture?<br />
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4- What is Chinese astrology based on?<br />
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5-Is Chinese astrology accurate?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1. To predict the future, to determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.<br />
<br />
2. A person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu.<br />
<br />
3. The year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year.<br />
<br />
4. The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.85-year orbital period of Jupiter.<br />
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5. Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Ting, Julian (2014), 占星學量子, createspace, ISBN 978-149373455-9<br />
<br />
何丙郁. (2003). ''Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars'', Routledge, ISBN 0415297591<br />
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Sun, Xiaochun, Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). ''The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society''. Leiden: Brill. 3-4. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.<br />
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"'Almanac' 'lunar' zodiac beginning of spring as the boundary dislocation? — China Network". 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2011.<br />
<br />
Eberhard, Wolfram. (1986). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols''. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. 93, 105, 309.<br />
<br />
"Five Elements (Wu Xing)". YourChineseAstrology.com<br />
<br />
==Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 ==<br />
[[File:Chunlian.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Chunlian, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]<br />
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===Spring Festival Couplets===<br />
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. It is the most common and important custom when celebrating Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China.With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).<br />
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Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. Pasting the Spring Festival Couplets on gateposts or doors is one of the most common and important customs when Chinese People celebrate Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China. With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).<br />
<br />
Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made of peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).<br />
<br />
The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also traditions for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China.In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).<br />
<br />
There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China. In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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*Zhang Yanchen 张砚宸. (2020). 中国春联的文化内涵与艺术特色探微 [The exploration of the cultural connotations and artistic features of Chinese Spring Couplets]. ''汉字文化'' Chinese Character Culture (19) 34-35.<br />
*Li Wenyan 李文艳. (2018). 春联的演变历程及民俗价值 [The evolution and folk value of Spring Festival Couplets]. ''艺术品鉴'' Art Appreciation (24) 211-212.<br />
*Qian Yu, Liu Tao 钱钰，刘涛. (2018). 从桃符到春联的演进——基于祝由文化兴衰的视角 [The Evolution from Taofu to Spring Couplets - A perspective based on the rise and fall of Zhuyu Culture]. ''民间文化论坛'' Folk Culture Forum (01) 75-83.<br />
*Han Daqiang 韩大强. (2014). 论春节仪式中符号元素的文化意蕴——以春联、门神为例 [On the cultural implications of symbolic elements in Chinese New Year Rituals - Taking Spring Couplets and Door Gods as examples]. ''信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Xinyang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (05) 83-87.<br />
<br />
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===Terms and Expressions ===<br />
Spring Festival Couplets, Spring Couplets, Chinese New Year Couplets, New Year Scroll 春联 <br />
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Paste 贴<br />
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Horizontal scroll 横联<br />
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Upper scroll 上联<br />
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Lower scroll 下联<br />
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===Questions ===<br />
1.What’s the purpose of pasting Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
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2.What’s the historical origin of Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
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3.How to read the Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
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4.How to do with the Old Couplets?<br />
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===Answers ===<br />
1.To expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.<br />
<br />
2.It originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3.First, look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left. <br />
<br />
4.Remove the old scrolls until the next New Year or tear them off after the Lantern Festival.<br />
<br />
==Instruments, Guzheng - Chen Han 陈涵 - 202070080580 - MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
[[File:Guzheng.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Guzheng in the shop, photo by Christopher Hsia. Click[https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Even_more_Guzhengs_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%8F)_cropped.jpg#mw-jump-to-license]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===Guzheng===<br />
<br />
''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments. As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' has become an important instrument and was widespread at that time. Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese. (Wang Xiaohong & Gu Haijun 2019, 69)<br />
<br />
There are varied accounts for how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part. (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51)<br />
<br />
The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were originally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is approximately rectangular, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. Since the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)<br />
<br />
[[File:Fingerpicks.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Using fingerpicks to play the guzheng. Image from Baidu. Click[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=古筝&step_word=&hs=0&pn=27&spn=0&di=9900&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3246661627%2C3658564396&os=3335747328%2C3552694810&simid=0%2C0&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1718&fr=&fmq=1607348039297_R&fm=result&ic=&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=http%3A%2F%2Fi2.hdslb.com%2Fbfs%2Farchive%2F6a84e824b3507f96cd3f55df9c2d38744bb81962.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Ff_z%26e3Bojtk5_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fojtk5AzdH3F%25Ec%25la%25bC%25El%25b8%25ln%25Em%25AE%25bA%25El%25ba%25l9%25Ec%25bF%25A9%25E0%25AD%25lD%3Fiwfet1j5%3D8%26fjw6viet1j5%3D8&gsm=1c&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke a sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the stings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)<br />
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Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, several new schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school (Cao Yue 2002, 84).<br />
<br />
In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated in a TV show — ''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classical music competition show. In a performance, Wang merged the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'' by playing the ''guzheng'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)<br />
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From ancient times to the present, the charm of the ''guzheng'' has never diminished. The combination of cultural heritage and modern techniques has made this national musical instrument more radiant.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Cao Yue 曹月. (2019). 古筝的主要流派与风格特征 [The main schools and styles of the guzheng]. ''东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Southeast University (Philosophy and Social Science) (04) 84-87.<br />
*Duan Lili 段丽丽. (2006). 古筝的起源与发展 [The origin and development of the guzheng]. ''民族音乐'' Folk Music (01) 57-58.<br />
*Gao Yiwei 高祎蔚. (2020). 浅谈古筝演奏中音色的体现及把握 [The embodiment and grasp of timbre in guzheng performance]. ''中国文艺家'' Chinese literary artists (05) 39+165. <br />
*Jin Jianmin 金建民. (1988). 古筝起源之谜 [The mystery of the origin of the guzheng]. ''中国音乐'' Chinese Music (01) 51.<br />
*Liu Xueqi 刘雪琦. (2019). 浅谈古筝的起源与发展历程 [The origin and development history of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (14) 83.<br />
*Tong Guiying 佟桂影. (2017). 王中山古筝作品的艺术特征研究 [Research on the artistic characteristics of Wang Zhongshan's guzheng performances]. ''才智'' Talents (24) 197-198.<br />
*Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 王晓红, 顾海珺. (2019). 浅谈古筝传承与发展 [The development of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (23) 69.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*Meng Tian 蒙恬 <br />
*Zhao Lin 赵璘<br />
*''Records on Words'' 《因话录》<br />
*anterior mountain 前岳山 <br />
*posterior mountain 后岳山<br />
*''Yan Zhu'' 雁柱 <br />
*string pegs 弦钉<br />
*turning box 调音盒 <br />
*zither feet 琴足<br />
*paulownia 桐木 <br />
*mahogany 红木<br />
*''Dai Mao'' 玳瑁<br />
*''Yi Jia'' 义甲<br />
*''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo'' 勾、托、劈、挑、抹<br />
*''High Mountains and Running Water'' 《高山流水》<br />
*''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' 《汉宫秋月》<br />
*''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' 《寒鸦戏水》<br />
*''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' 《柳青娘》<br />
*Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu, Luo Jiuxiang 王巽之、曹正、曹东扶、罗九香<br />
*Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang 王中山、袁莎、周望<br />
*''National Music Ceremony'' 《国乐大典》<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What kind of musical instrument does the ''guzheng'' belong to?<br />
<br />
2. Why the ''guzheng'' is deeply loved by Chinese? <br />
<br />
3. Who is Meng Tian? <br />
<br />
4. According to the legend, how did the ''se'' develop into the ''zheng''?<br />
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5. How many strings does the ''guzheng'' have? How long is the guzheng?<br />
<br />
6. What is the function of movable bridges?<br />
<br />
7. What are used by ''guzheng'' performers to play the instrument? And What are they also called? <br />
<br />
8. In ancient times, what materials were the fingerpicks made of?<br />
<br />
9. Generally speaking, how does the players strike notes? <br />
<br />
10. What styles can ''guzheng'' be divided into?<br />
<br />
11. Which school does ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belong to? <br />
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12. Do you know any other ''guzheng'' music? Please list some pieces.<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.<br />
<br />
2. It has beautiful timbre, broad range, rich performance skills and strong expressive power. <br />
<br />
3. He is a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), and a legend says the early form of the ''zheng'' is said to have been invented by him.<br />
<br />
4. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part. <br />
<br />
5. It usually has 21 strings and is 163 centimeters long. <br />
<br />
6. They are moved to change the timbres.<br />
<br />
7. ''Guzheng'' performers use fingerpicks to play the instrument. They are also called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia''.<br />
<br />
8. In ancient times, fingerpicks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade.<br />
<br />
9. Performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. <br />
<br />
10. The Northern school and the Southern school.<br />
<br />
11. ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belongs to the Shandong school.<br />
<br />
12. ''Harvest Celebration'' (''Qing Feng Nian'' 《庆丰年》), ''Fighting the Typhoon'' (''Zhan Tai Feng'' 《战台风》) and ''Song of the Fishermen'' (''Yu Zhou Chang Wan'' 《渔舟唱晚》).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - 202070080581 - 英语笔译==<br />
===Facial makeup===<br />
<br />
Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the face of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it come to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with a strict moral code; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up.(Wang Hai 2018, 62) <br />
<br />
The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.(Wang Hai 2018, 62) <br />
<br />
People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It is said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous and good-looking and was bound to win every time he worn a mask that seemed frightening in the battlefield. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.(Cao Juan 2019, 58)<br />
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The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou wear their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brow and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk characteristics. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in jing.(He Weiwei 2015, 138)<br />
<br />
Red<br />
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Red facial makeup is symbolic of loyalty, upright and integrity like the characters Guan Yu and Wu Han.<br />
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Black<br />
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Black facial makeup gives people the impression that the actor is serious,courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.<br />
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White<br />
<br />
White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Hui.<br />
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Blue<br />
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Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly like Ma Wu and Dou Erdun.<br />
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Purple<br />
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Purple facial makeup shows more sedate and righteous like Xu Yanzhao and Zhuan Zhu.<br />
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Golden<br />
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Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural being such as Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).<br />
<br />
The features of facial makeup are mainly as follows:<br />
First, it is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness.Second, it is closely related to the character’s personality.Thirdly, its pattern is stylized. Chinese Peking opera makeup is favored by many opera enthusiasts and is widely known both at home and abroad, having been regarded as one of the mark of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for facial makeup in Chinese opera, a great many foreign friends and Chinese of insight start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
painted face 花脸<br />
<br />
clown 丑角<br />
<br />
Sheng 生<br />
<br />
Dan 旦<br />
<br />
Jing 净<br />
<br />
Chou 丑<br />
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Qingyi 青衣<br />
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xiaosheng 小生<br />
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laosheng 老生<br />
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wusheng 武生<br />
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Gao Changgong 高长恭<br />
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legend，romance 传奇剧<br />
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Erlang Shen, Erlang 二郎神<br />
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Tathagata, Buddha 如来佛<br />
<br />
Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br />
<br />
Water Margin of the Marsh 水浒传<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.How many types are character roles divided into in Beijing opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the differences bbetween Sheng and Dan?<br />
<br />
3.What are the special features of Chou?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of facial mask in Beijing opera?<br />
<br />
5.What are the main features of facial makeup?<br />
<br />
6.What are the characteristics of characters wearing blue facial makeup?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Four types:Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou.<br />
<br />
2.Sheng refers to male roles while Dan refers to female roles.<br />
<br />
3.A patch of white powder is wiped on their nose.<br />
<br />
4.It is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage. <br />
<br />
5.It is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness and is closely related to the character’s personality and its pattern is stylized.<br />
<br />
6.Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
He Weiwei 何伟伟.(2015).浅谈京剧脸谱的色彩研究[Study on the colors of the facial makeup in Beijing opera].艺术科技 Art and Technology ,28(04):138-139.<br />
<br />
Cao Juan 曹娟.(2019).中国京剧脸谱之考究[Study on Beijing opera facial makeup].中国京剧,(01):58-61.<br />
<br />
Wang Hai 王海.(2018).京剧脸谱程式化特征与传统文化元素[Features of Beijing opera facial makeup and the traditional elements it related to].中国京剧 Chinese Peking Opera,(08):62-65.<br />
<br />
==Literature, Science Fiction, and Fantasy - Dashkin, Gennadii - Student No.201911080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
=== Three Worldwide Famous Chinese Novelists of Modern Science Fiction and Fantasy===<br />
<br />
<br />
Nowadays, modern literature is one of the most interesting and gorgeous sides of worldwide cultural processes. It heals soul and heart and can change everything to its best. However, it can be difficult sometimes to talk about literature without dividing it into genres. We can guess that the modern generation in the whole world prefers to read something about the future. Something, that can help to understand what will be next. And that is why one of the most popular genres are with no doubt - Science Fiction and Fantasy. So, let's see who are the most popular Chinese sci-fi and fantasy authors who broaden our mental horizons.<br />
<br />
====1.Liu Cixin（刘慈欣）====<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Cixin was born in 1963 in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, 400 kilometers from Beijing. Other famous natives of the area were Gaozu, the founder of the Tang Imperial Dynasty, and Jia Zhangke, the chief filmmaker of modern China. The parents of the future writer worked in a mine in Shanxi, and his first conscious years fell on the heyday of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). (Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
[[File: 21.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Cixin Liu. ILLUSTRATION: ZACHARY BAKO FOR THE WALL STREET JOURNAL. Click [https://www.zacharybako.com/]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Liu received his technical education from North China University of Water and Electricity. After graduation, he worked as a computer engineer at a power plant in his native Yangquan. Now Liu Qixin is combining his studies of literature with the post of chief engineer of the China Energy Investment Corporation at the Nianziguan Power Plant. Liu Cixin started writing relatively late. At 26, he wrote China in 2185, but the book never saw the light of the day. Mostly this was due to the consequences of the Cultural Revolution - in the late 80s, almost no science fiction literature was published in China. Later, when the opportunity arose to publish the novel, the writer himself re-read it, considered it second-rate, badly written, and naive, and decided that he did not deserve publication. However, Liu Cixin did not give up and in 1999 he released another novel, written by him at a young age, but significantly modified and edited for publication. This is how Liu Cixin's first big book appeared - the novel "Supernova Era". Before that, some of his stories were published in magazines, but the writer's name became really noticeable after the publication of this book. In it, as a result of the radiation of a supernova, all people over 30 are threatened with death within a year. Since then, the life of humanity has changed dramatically, and although the doomed older generation made heroic efforts to make the existence of young people better, a year later the world is plunging into an abyss of chaos and violence. (Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,352)<br />
<br />
Liu's first books were warmly received in China, but nevertheless, the real success came to the author only in 2006, when he published the first part of his trilogy "Memory of the Earth's Past" - the novel "The Problem of Three Bodies" in the Chinese journal Science Fiction World. This book first made the writer a real star in his homeland, and 7 years later, when the Chinese-American science fiction writer Ken Liu translated it into English, and all over the world. The novel has become so popular that the entire trilogy is often referred to as "The Three-Body Problem," although this is not formally true.In 2006, the book won the Galaxy Award, the main Chinese literary science fiction award, and after being translated into English, it was nominated for all three major world awards: Hugo, Locus, and Nebula. The novel only won the Hugo Award, but in 2017 the third part of the Eternal Life of Death trilogy took over Locus. The novel gain such a great popularity that famous people like Barack Obama and Marc Zuckerberg recommended it to every single person in order to understand the perhaps future and how to avoid the negative contact with aliens.(Kakutani, Obama’s Secret to Surviving the White House Years:Books 2017, 1)<br />
<br />
Liu Cixin is definitely a unique writer, with his own style, philosophy, and special vision of science fiction. So far, only three of his novels have been published outside of China, but he has already won such recognition that Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg recommend reading the Cixin trilogy. But the main thing that Liu Cixin has already managed to prove with his books is that science fiction literature is capable of giving generous shoots not only on the basis of European culture. Liu Cixin is the first person outside of the Western world to achieve resounding success in science fiction. And, perhaps, his trilogy is just the beginning of a new global phenomenon. After all, it's not for nothing that many experts have been saying for several years that the future belongs to China. It is very likely that this phrase refers not only to politics and economics but also to science fiction literature.Also Liu Cixin is a big fan of reading books and he sometimes recommend not only to read classical sci-fi novels but also modern authors like Chen Qiufan, Derek Kunsken and so on.(Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,15)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆） ====<br />
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<br />
[[File:22.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Chen Qiufan photographed in Beijing by Gilles Sabrié. Click [https://www.gsabrie.com/] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Today this author is called by others the “Chinese William Gibson”. He can also be called one of the leaders of Chinese science-fiction and a cyberpunk novelist. He was born in China in 1981 in a seaside province in southeastern China called Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau. To say more accurately he grew up a few miles from Guiyu, the largest waste dump. Mountains of scrap electronics are shipped there every year from all over the world. Thousands of workers sort through the garbage in search of something that is suitable for recycling. This topic became the central topic in a novel called “Waste Tide”.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,3)<br />
<br />
Also, by the early 2000s, Chen Qiufang had become a big fan of virtual chats and the Internet. He saw great potential in the Internet and technologies in general, an opportunity to change the world for the better. After graduation, Chen worked with Google, Baidu, and co-founded Noitom, a virtual reality startup in Beijing. As science fiction began to gain popularity in China and receive support from the government, Qiufan turned to full-fledged novels.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,5)<br />
<br />
His debut book was ''The Empty Wave'', "combining realism and allegory to represent the hybridity of humans and machines." Chen Qiufan's novels and stories won three Galaxy Awards and twelve Chinese Nebula Awards. His works have been translated into German, French, Finnish, Korean, Czech, Italian, Japanese, Polish, and Russian. His book ''Waste Tide'' became one of the most discussed books around the world and got universal acclaim from critics and usual readers. The fantastic mix of dark future with reality components made this book a guidebook for those who are worried about ecological problems and the darkest sides of human progress.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,8)<br />
<br />
Chen Qiufan is a constant consumer of entertainment and literature. He watches at least 100 new films and reads at least 50 books a year. He was recently recruited into the development of a television series called Eros, which will launch in 2019-2020. He compares it to Netflix's dystopian show Black Mirror. Chen travels frequently between Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong for various projects and literary festivals.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide,2019,17)<br />
<br />
====3.Rebecca F. Kuang (匡灵秀)====<br />
<br />
[[File:23.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Rebecca F. Kuang. Click [https://www.instagram.com/kuangrf/?hl=ru] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
When Rebecca was four years old, her family emigrated to the United States from Guangzhou, China. Kuang's father grew up in Leiyang, in Hunan province, and his mother in Hainan Island.Quang grew up in Dallas, Texas, and later went to Georgetown University in large part because of the college's discussion team. Kuang began writing The Opium War when she worked as a debate trainer in China during a break from her studies. Rebecca always liked writing, but she was afraid that an education related to literature might not give her a profession in demand. But during the direct work on the book, she completed several literary courses. As a result, her first novel was published when she was only 22 years old.Rebecca graduated from the university in June 2018. She further attended Magdalene College, Cambridge University as a recipient of the 2018 Marshall Fellowship, where she earned her Master of Philosophy in Sinology. She is currently pursuing a Master's Degree in Contemporary Sinology from Oxford University.(Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018,4)<br />
Her debut novel, The Opium War, is a war fantasy setting inspired by the history and culture of China. The Opium War is a dark fantasy genre. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century. The conflict refers to the Second Sino-Japanese War, but the scenery is inspired by the Song Dynasty. The novel accurately recreates the social, mythological, and philosophical realities of China of the chosen era.(Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018,7)<br />
<br />
The last news about R.F.Kuang is that she wrote a short tale for an anthology of Star Wars saga, which was published in November. She wrote about this news in her Twitter.(Twitter 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
1. Science fiction - 科幻<br />
<br />
2. Fantasy - 奇幻<br />
<br />
3. Horizon - 地平线<br />
<br />
4. Broad - 拓宽<br />
<br />
5. Hybrid - 杂种<br />
<br />
6. The plot - 情节<br />
<br />
7. Garbage - 垃圾堆<br />
<br />
8. Heyday - 壮年<br />
<br />
9. Supernova - 超新星<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/magazine/ken-liu-three-body-problem-chinese-science-fiction.html<br />
<br />
*Chen Qiufan 陈楸帆. (2019). Waste Tide 荒潮. Tor Books; Translation edition. Translated by Ken Liu - 342 pp.<br />
<br />
*Liu Cixin 刘慈欣. (2019). Supernova Era 超新星纪元. Tor Books; First Edition. Translated by Joel Martinsen - 352 pp.<br />
<br />
*Rebecca F.Kuang 匡灵秀. (2018). The Poppy War 罂粟战争. Harper Voyager - 530 pp.<br />
<br />
*Michiko Kakutani, Obama’s Secret to Surviving the White House Years: Books. The New York Times, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/16/books/obamas-secret-to-surviving-the-white-house-years-books.html<br />
<br />
*Twitter.https://twitter.com/kuangrf<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the name of the most important tilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?<br />
<br />
2. What is the most popular trilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?<br />
<br />
3. Who is called Chinese William Gibson?<br />
<br />
4. What is Rebecca Quang's Opium War plot based on?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The Remembrance of Earth's Past<br />
<br />
2. Memory of the Earth's Past<br />
<br />
3. Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆）<br />
<br />
4. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
==Stilts - Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 202070080582 英语笔译==<br />
[[File:stilts.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Stilts presentation during the Miliangtun Stilt Festival, image from Baike. Click [http://img3.imgtn.bdimg.com/it/u=2060438651,2837589998&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage — Miliangtun Village Stilts===<br />
<br />
<center>Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 202070080582 英语笔译</center><br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
Stilt is one of the folk dances of the Han nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near. (Huo Linmo, 2018)<br />
<br />
As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and bestowed by Emperor Qianlong. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing over 250 years ago. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performance techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic in these funny characters. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The only serious character among the 13 roles is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords are his signature tricks. Others like the young boy, a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He plays the trick of going fishing because that's his character setting. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to accompany the performance and amuse the audience. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The show of Kylin Songzi (麒麟送子), which indicates good luck and peace, marks the end of the whole performance. Tuotou lies down flat, the young boy riding on his waist like a living lion. Mr. Plaster and young master raise their waists with Yupo dancing Yangko behind. Fisherman uses his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
As a renowned fair, Miliangtun Village Stilts is characterized by risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as Yasha Searches the Sea, Su Qin Carries Swords, squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. Stilt-walkers control the balance with their waists. They must bend their knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. The upper body and their feet must be coordinated, and swing from side to side to ensure the balance when stepping on the wooden stilts. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair, which will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. As the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts stands out among the stilt fairs and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. It is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny, which is divided into lead in, head stilts command, and separation performance, forming into a fixed set of performance routines after long-term drills since the establishment. Miliangtun Village Stilts has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks. (Sun Miao, 2018)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Miliangtun (village name) 米粮屯<br />
<br />
stilts 高跷<br />
<br />
intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
<br />
folk dance 民间舞蹈<br />
<br />
Toutou 陀头<br />
<br />
Laozuozi 老坐子 <br />
<br />
young boy 小二哥<br />
<br />
young master 公子<br />
<br />
Mr.Plaster 药先生<br />
<br />
Choupo 丑婆<br />
<br />
fisherman渔翁<br />
<br />
Yupo 渔婆 <br />
<br />
wood-cutter 柴翁<br />
<br />
handsome and ugly drum-players 俊鼓和丑鼓<br />
<br />
handsome and ugly gong-players 俊锣和丑锣<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. Where does Miliangtun Village Stilts originate?<br />
<br />
2. How many years of history does Miliangtun Village Stilts have?<br />
<br />
3. How many roles in Miliangtun Village Stilts?<br />
<br />
4. When was Miliangtun Village Stilts listed as the intangible cultural heritage?<br />
<br />
5. How long is the shortest and the longest stilts?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing.<br />
<br />
2. More than 250 years.<br />
<br />
3. 13.<br />
<br />
4. In 2006.<br />
<br />
5. The shortest stilt is two feet long, and the longest reaches over five feet.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Huo Linmo 霍淋漠. (2018). ''高碑店市河头村高跷会考察与研究'' [Investigation and research on stilts fair in Hetou Village, Gaobeidian City]. Hebe: Hebei University 河北大学.<br />
<br />
Sun Miao 孙淼. (2018). "一跷多艺": 胜芳高跷会的舞体表征与比较研究 ["Multi-skills with one stilt": A comparative study of the dance style of Shengfang stilt fair]. ''长江丛刊'' [Yangtze River Series] (24)18.<br />
<br />
Xingxing 邢星. (2019). 米粮屯高跷 [Miliangtun Village Stilts]. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%B1%B3%E7%B2%AE%E5%B1%AF%E9%AB%98%E8%B7%B7%E4%BC%9A/12762743?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
非物质文化遗产米粮屯高跷 [Intangible cultural heritage Miliangtun Village Stilts] (2019). https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1643344511003907548&wfr=spider&for=pc<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Lion Dancing - Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 202070080583 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of good fortune. However, there was no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,77)<br />
<br />
When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.<br />
<br />
There are a number of stories about the origin of lion dance. Here is one of the sayings. During the Ming Dynasty, it was said that a monster always damaged crops in Guangdong province at the end of the year. Local people called it "Nian". In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.(Zhang Guobin 2019,157)<br />
<br />
In lion dance, lions are made of colorful cloth strips, and each lion is usually performed by two people, one handling the head and the other moving the body and tail. Under the music of gongs and drums, performers dress up as lions and make various forms of lion movements. The lion dance is an art which combines martial arts, dance and music together. Originating in the Han Dynasty, lion dance has prevailed among Chinese people and spread throughout all over China since the Tang Dynasty. There are mainly two kinds of lion dance in China: northern lion dancing and southern lion dancing.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
===Northern lion dancing===<br />
<br />
The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur, and even the pants and shoes of performers are the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance is performed by two people.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76) <br />
<br />
Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
===Southern lion dancing===<br />
<br />
Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom(AD 221-263). Guan Gong lion performs bravely, Zhang Fei lion's action is rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion is calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing, dancers use different "Ma Bu" or horse stances, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
Dancers usually perform the traditional custom of “Cai Qing”, literally meaning "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming. People use lettuces as greens and hang them with red envelopes. The lion dancers perform in front of the greens with hesitation, then finally jump up and eat the lettuces in one gulp. (Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
In recent years, in order to maintain the characteristics of the traditional Chinese lion dance, the southern lion dancing and the northern lion dancing complement each other and improve together. (Liu Xing 2019,39)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Western Regions 西域<br />
<br />
mount 坐骑<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
gong 锣<br />
<br />
northern lion dancing 南狮<br />
<br />
southern lion dancing 北狮<br />
<br />
colorful silk ball 绣球<br />
<br />
wooden stakes 木桩<br />
<br />
spiritual resemblance神似<br />
<br />
Liu Bei lion 刘备狮<br />
<br />
Guan Gong lion 关公狮<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei lion 张飞狮<br />
<br />
sworn brothers 结义兄弟<br />
<br />
horse stances 马步<br />
<br />
Cai Qing 采青<br />
<br />
lettuces 生菜<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. How long is the history of lion dance in China?<br />
<br />
2. Why did people gradually accept lion as a sacred animal?<br />
<br />
3. Why did people use lion dance to celebrate the New Year?<br />
<br />
4. What is the main difference between southern lion dancing and northern lion dancing?<br />
<br />
5. What is the center of southern lion dancing?<br />
<br />
6. How many colors are there in the heads of southern lions? And what are they?<br />
<br />
7. What is “Cai Qing”? And what do you know about “Cai Qing”?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is with a history of about 2000 years.<br />
<br />
2. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.<br />
<br />
3. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.<br />
<br />
4. The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion, but southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance.<br />
<br />
5. It is in southern China’s Guangdong province.<br />
<br />
6. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow.<br />
<br />
7. It means "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Xing刘兴.(2019). 从文化结构看舞龙舞狮运动的现代化发展[Modern Development of Dragon and Lion Dance from the Perspective of Cultural Structure]. 体育师友Sports Teachers and Friends 42(04): 37-39.<br />
<br />
Yu Zhaojie于兆杰.(2008).中国舞狮的起源及其发展演变[The Origin and Development of Lion Dance in China]. 搏击. 武术科学Wushu Science (06): 75-76.<br />
<br />
Zhang Guobin张国斌.(2019).中国传统舞龙舞狮运动历史文化探索及传播研究[Research on the Historical and Cultural Exploration and Dissemination of Chinese Traditional Dragon and Lion Dance]. 散文百家Prose Hundred (10): 157-158.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanqing张延庆.(2003). 中国舞狮的起源与文化演变[Origin and Cultural Evolution of Lion Dancing in China]. 体育文化导刊Sports Culture Guide (11): 77-78.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Literature, Tang-Song - Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉 202070080584 英语笔译==<br />
===A. The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===<br />
[[File:Tang Song Ba Da Jia.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Brief Introduction of The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===<br />
<br />
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the Ancient Prose Movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the Ancient Prose Movement in the Song Dynasty. Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Among the "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe), Su Xun is their father and Su Shi is the older brother.Su Shi, together with Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong,was the student of Ouyang Xiu. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25)<br />
<br />
In a word, they all advocated prose and opposed parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their successive waves of innovation of ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)<br />
<br />
'''1. Han Yu'''<br />
[[File:Han Yu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was a native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as "The Decline of Eight Generations" by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasties. Han Yu was called "Han Liu" with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu's poems as "Du poem Han pen" by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as "The Article Giant" and "Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations" with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory.(Hou Benta 2014, 135)<br />
<br />
Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)<br />
<br />
'''2. Liu Zongyuan'''<br />
[[File:Liu Zongyuan.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong, now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong", " Mr. Hedong ", as well as "Liu Liuzhou" because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Chang'an and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.<br />
<br />
He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu", with Liu Yuxi as "Liu Liu", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)<br />
<br />
He was a deep-thinking philosopher and great litterateur, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude to writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation.(Zhangjian 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
'''3. Ouyang Xiu'''<br />
[[File:Ouyang Xiu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the "Liu Yi scholar", which means that he had ten thousand volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk man alone. He was born in Mianzhou, now Mianyang city in Sichuan province, whose hometown is Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji'an city in Jiangxi province.<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu's poem, Ci and prose were all the crown of that time. His poem was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style, which stresses on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was one of his representatives.<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu's ancient prose, and pioneered the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, he not only drove away the old style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation by virtue of his own unique style and high talent. He has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height.(Hou Benta 2014, 136)<br />
<br />
'''4. Su Xun'''<br />
[[File:Su Xun.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. At the age of 19, he married Mrs. Cheng. Later he determined to study hard at the age of 27. After a decade of hard work, he made huge progress in his academic field.<br />
<br />
Su Xun was a man full of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world", and to "apply to the present". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Owing to his great understanding of social reality, he was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot.<br />
<br />
'''5. Su Shi'''<br />
[[File:Su Shi.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Su Shi, with a fame as "Dongpo Jushi", was a native in Meishan in Sichuan. He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Su Shi was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China". He was regarded as one of the most outstanding men in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. He was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area,.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)<br />
<br />
Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage.(Zhangjian 2019, 1) Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called "Su Men Four bachelors".<br />
<br />
'''6. Su Zhe'''<br />
[[File:Su Zhe.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou, now Sichuan province. In the the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), Su Zhe, together with his brother Su Shi, climbed jinshi branch. <br />
<br />
Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He performed well in politics and history. In his political works such as The New Theory and the Six States, he mostly discussed world affairs. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode, such as his work the "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)<br />
<br />
'''7. Wang Anshi'''<br />
[[File:Wang Anshi.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo. He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province.<br />
<br />
Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature should aim to serve the society first. That means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary opinions of enlightenment of political decrees for world use.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)<br />
<br />
'''8. Zeng Gong'''<br />
[[File:Zeng Gong.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng", including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.<br />
<br />
Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text.(Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple with little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments such as the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In those works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.<br />
<br />
'''9. Comparison between the Ancient Prose Movement and Renaissance'''<br />
<br />
Although there were seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the middle ancient period of their history respectively. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their cultures.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)<br />
<br />
Comparison in ideology:<br />
<br />
The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.(Wang Yaping 2001, 8) Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.<br />
<br />
Comparison in writing style:<br />
<br />
The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient prose, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of in Tang and Song Dynasties studied the simple language style of the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)<br />
<br />
Comparison in literary form:<br />
<br />
The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the Six Dynasties, but also laid a good foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language.(He Lei 2017, 159) Although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theories and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said: "Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)<br />
<br />
===B. Terms and Expressions===<br />
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters 唐宋八大家<br />
<br />
Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties 《唐宋八大家文钞》<br />
<br />
Ancient Prose Movement 古文运动<br />
<br />
parallel prose 骈文<br />
<br />
The Decline of Eight Generations 文起八代之衰<br />
<br />
The Article Giant 文章巨公<br />
<br />
Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations 百代文宗<br />
<br />
Han Changli Collection 《韩昌黎集》<br />
<br />
External collection 《外集》<br />
<br />
The Teacher's Theory《师说》<br />
<br />
Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties 先秦两汉时期<br />
<br />
writing in classical Chinese 文言文<br />
<br />
feudal provincial of Liuzhou 柳州刺史<br />
<br />
official supervisor of imperial censor 监察御史<br />
<br />
Liu He Dong Colloection 《柳河东集》<br />
<br />
Northern Song Dynasty 北宋<br />
<br />
a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions 金石遗文一千卷<br />
<br />
Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties 三代<br />
<br />
the crown of that time 一时之冠<br />
<br />
Southern Tang Dynasty 南唐<br />
<br />
Yu Feng 余风<br />
<br />
The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong 《欧阳文忠公文集》<br />
<br />
the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement北宋诗文革新运动<br />
<br />
Heng Lun 《衡论》<br />
<br />
Duke Jingguo 荆国公<br />
<br />
The Book to the Emperor 《上皇帝书》<br />
<br />
Dongpo Jushi 东坡居士<br />
<br />
Ci writer 词人<br />
<br />
Unconstrained Ci School豪放派<br />
<br />
literary and artistic attainments 文学艺术造诣<br />
<br />
the first all-round talent in ancient China 中国古代第一全才<br />
<br />
Su Men Four bachelors 苏门四学士<br />
<br />
the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council 《上枢密韩太尉书》<br />
<br />
The New Theory《新论》<br />
<br />
On the Six Kingdoms 《六国论》<br />
<br />
Ode 赋<br />
<br />
The Ode to Ink bamboo 《墨竹赋》<br />
<br />
Seven Zengs of Nanfeng 南丰七曾<br />
<br />
the doctrine before the text先道后文<br />
<br />
the Book to Ouyang She Ren 《上欧阳舍人书》<br />
<br />
the Book to Bachelor Cai 《上蔡学士书》<br />
<br />
the Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
<br />
===C. Questions===<br />
1.Who are the pioneers of the Ancient Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
2.Which kind of prose they advocate in the Ancient Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know any representative work of Liu Zongyuan?<br />
<br />
4.Why Ouyang Xiu is called "Liu Yi Scholar"?<br />
<br />
5.What’s the relationship among Su Xun, Su Shi and Su Zhe?<br />
<br />
6.Who are the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng"?<br />
<br />
7.Do you know any about the Renaissance?<br />
<br />
===D. Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.<br />
<br />
2.The prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3.The "Liu He Dong Colloection".<br />
<br />
4.Because he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk man alone.<br />
<br />
5.Su Xun is the father of Su Shi and Su Zhe and Su Shi is the older brother.<br />
<br />
6.Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.<br />
<br />
7.The Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Fang Wenben 房本文.(2013).士族兴衰与骈散消长—唐代古文运动发微 [The rise and fall of nobles and parallel prose- The subtleties of the Ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.<br />
<br />
Hou Benta 候本塔.(2014). 论唐、宋古文运动中的韩愈与欧阳修 [On Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu in the Tang and Song Dynasties]. 三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition) 36(S1):135-137.<br />
<br />
He Lei 何蕾.(2017). 中唐古文运动：社会转型背景下的文体之变 [The Ancient Prose Movement in the Middle Tang Dynasty: Stylistic Changes in the Context of social transformation]. 青海社会科学 Qinghai Social Sciences (03):156-162.<br />
<br />
Lu Sihong 芦思宏.(2016). 略论中西文学的复古倾向—以唐代古文运动与意大利文艺复兴为例 [On the retro tendency in Chinese and Western Literature -- a case study of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang Dynasty and the Italian Renaissanc].中外文化与文论 Chinese and Foreign culture and literary theory (01):71-81.<br />
<br />
Wang Yaping 王亚平.(2001). 论西欧中世纪的三次文艺复兴 [On the three Renaissance in The Middle Ages in Western Europe]. 东北师大学报 Journal of Northeast Normal University (06):1-8.<br />
<br />
Zhangjian 张剑.(2019). 唐宋古文运动的文学维度 [The literary dimension of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 10-28(010).<br />
<br />
Zhangjian 张剑.(2019). 唐宋古文运动的思想维度 [The ideological dimension of the Ancient Prose movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 08-26(010).<br />
<br />
Zhao Kun 赵鲲.(2016). 中国文学中的两大文学变革运动—古文运动与“五四”新文学运动之比较 [A comparison between the two major literary revolutions in Chinese literature - the Ancient Prose Movement and the May 4th New Literary Movement]. 解放军艺术学院学报 Journal of Pla Art Academy (01):113-119.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫.(2016). 唐宋八大家论 [On the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 中华活页文选(教师版) Chinese Loose-leaf Selections (Teachers' edition) (12):25-31.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Music, Instruments, Pipa - Gao Mingzhu 高明珠 - 202070080585 - MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===1. A Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
[[File:1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The structure of Pipa. image from 360Baike. Click[https://image.so.com/view?q=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&src=srp&correct=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&ancestor=list&cmsid=b749b87b72b5c9427d6560a39d41548f&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=0&crn=0&bxn=0&fsn=60&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=247#id=22b2926be2637560e928bbc9318219fb&currsn=0&ps=58&pc=58]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. Being made of wood or bamboo, its speaker box takes the shape of half pear with 4 strings on it ,which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing）" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly using the left hand to press the string and the right hand to play. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank the first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020)<br />
<br />
===2.The Development of Pipa===<br />
<br />
The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: first, the Qu Xiang pipa（curving-neck pipa） was introduced into China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important musical instrument; In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, turning a breakthrough in timbre and performance technology and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one way to play pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style .(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) <br />
<br />
During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. Chinese traditional instrument playing style melted in its playing characteristics, and the pipa made great breakthroughs in playing skills and artistic expression and other aspects. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but it had changed from the original plucking to pointing, and the posture of playing changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
<br />
During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and skills of pipa performance were more mature, and the playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the range of the audience of pipa performance changed from small to large. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
<br />
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing pipa remained upright. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement of performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so not every class of the group can appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
<br />
===3.Pipa Schools and Their Chracteristics===<br />
<br />
The formation of Pipa schools in China was due to the southwards moving of the economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North School and the South School. Later, the North School collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(1)The Wuxi School<br />
<br />
The Wuxi School belongs to the original North School, and is different from the South School in terms of the tremolo. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi School was not as influential as the South School, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(2)The Pinghu School<br />
<br />
The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu School's tremolo of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(3)The Pudong School <br />
<br />
Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both literary and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and so on.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(4)The Chongming School<br />
<br />
The Chongming School also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, The Chongming School pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuance in the slow, the order in the fast, and the soft and lively sound. In the aspect of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(5)The Shanghai School<br />
<br />
This school gathers the characteristics of each school and has its own characteristics. In terms of playing techniques, it has created many new fingering techniques and most of the emotional expressions are characterized by masculinity and unrestraint.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
===4. Traditional Pipa Music===<br />
<br />
Traditional pipa music can be divided into military songs, literary songs and military-literary songs.<br />
<br />
Military songs emphasize the playing skills and strength of the right hand. Its style is magnificent, generous and grand. The music focuses on narration being realistic and narrative. It is often narrated continuously according to the development of content and plot. It has a large structure, vivid and colorful plot, and distinct paragraphs.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) The representative repertoires are "Ambush on All Sides(十面埋伏)", "Bury Me High(霸王卸甲)", "Hai Qing Hunting the Swan(海青拿天鹅)", "General Order in the Han Dynasty(汉将军令)". <br />
<br />
Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound heart talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to with simple and moving melody or beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset(夕阳箫鼓)", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad(昭君出塞)", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace(汉宫秋月)", "The Lofty Moon(月儿高)", "The Green Lotus(青莲乐府)", "Whisper from Pipa(琵琶语)", "Frontier Songs(塞上曲)" and so on.<br />
<br />
Military-literary song is the combination of martial song and literary song. The representative songs are "The Spring Snow(阳春白雪)", "High Mountain and Flowing Water(高山流水)", "Dragon Boat(龙船)", "Flute and Drum at Sunset(夕阳箫鼓)" and so on.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*360百科 “琵琶”词条. (2020).[The introduction of pipa on 360 Baike website].https://baike.so.com/doc/4922064-5141209.html.2020<br />
<br />
*Deng Sijia. 邓思佳 . (2020).中国琵琶流派问题及特征 [Schools and characteristics of Chinese pipa]. ''艺术家'' [Artist](10):56.<br />
<br />
*Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying. 周显顺, 张玉莹. (2018). 浅谈琵琶演奏的发展史 [A brief analysis of the development of the playing of pipa]. ''黄河之声''[Voice of the Yellow River] (16):56.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Xuange. 成玄歌. (2020). 琵琶不同派别与文曲、武曲的关系——以平湖派和浦东派为例 [The relationship between literary songs and military songs and different schools of pipa -Taking Pinghu School and Pudong School as examples]. ''艺术品鉴''[Art Appreciation] (29):51-52.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*弹拨乐器—plucked instruments<br />
<br />
*汉化—Chinesization<br />
<br />
*套曲—divertimentoes<br />
<br />
*游牧民族—nomad tribe<br />
<br />
*宫廷乐—court music<br />
<br />
*轮指法—tremolo<br />
<br />
*音色—timbre<br />
<br />
*曲目—repertoire<br />
<br />
*并弦—parallel string<br />
<br />
*指法—fingering techniques<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1、How many stages did pipa go through during its development?<br />
<br />
2、What characteristics did pipa have during Wei and Jin dynasties?<br />
<br />
3、What changes had been made to pipa during Ming and Qing dynasties?<br />
<br />
4、How many schools does pipa have and what are they?<br />
<br />
5、Can you list at least 3 representative repertoires of literary songs played by pipa? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1、Four.<br />
<br />
2、It still retained its strong western characteristics, and the playing way of it is unchained, heroic and simple.<br />
<br />
3、The pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. <br />
<br />
4、Five. They are Wuxi school, Pinghu school, Pudong School, Chongming school andShanghai school. <br />
<br />
5、"Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" .<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
==Mythology: Huli-jing - Grosheva, Anna - Student No. 201921080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
=== Huli-jing figure in Chinese mythology and its analogs in Japan and Korea === <br />
<br />
The topic of werewolves in the XXI century is perhaps one of the most discussed and studied. Along with vampires and zombies, the image of werewolves is firmly entrenched in world cinema and literature. However, as a rule, speaking about the motives for the transformation of a person into an animal, most people have information mainly about lycanthropy, that is, about the specific transformation of a person into a wolf (werewolf). At the same time, the theme of werewolves is represented by a fairly large number of transformations of a person not only into a wolf but also into other animals. In Chinese mythology, one of the most popular werewolf myths is the myth of the Huli Jing or werewolf foxes. In the Middle Ages, these myths were very popular and in-demand among writers. But what is the attitude of Huli-Jing in modern China? Are they given a place in modern culture, or do werewolf foxes now sound more like a kind of atavism or a children's fairy tale? (Xu Zhonglin, 1992, 57)<br />
<br />
[[File:fox.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Nine Tailed Fox by ARIELAkris, image from DeviantArt. Click [https://www.deviantart.com/arielakris/art/Nine-Tailed-Fox-384738575]for original source.]]<br />
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'''1. Huli-jing (狐狸精) in China'''<br />
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First, we need to recreate the image of the Huli-Jing and what was seen in ancient and medieval China. Most often, the Huli-Jing was presented in the form of not just a young, but extremely beautiful women. Interestingly, the image of werewolf foxes has been known in China since the times of the Xia dynasty and its founder Yu, who married a nine-tailed white fox who lived on Mount Tu. People, especially women, believed that due to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to resist the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty reign. At that time the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not fully eradicated in other parts of China. Probably, a more competent decision in between acolytes area was made to give the werefox woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor. (Kang Xiaofei, 2006, 206)<br />
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Perhaps the most striking examples of where the changed image of the Huli Jing is found can be called the stories of Pu Songlin about werewolf foxes. It is his stories, where girls are subject to the curse of turning into foxes, that reflect their position as hostages of their own life situations or even fears. The theme of fatal love in the stories of werefoxes appears as a continuous line in Pu Songling tales. This suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their savage ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment. (Pu Song-ling, 2008, 187)<br />
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Of course, the image of the Huli Jing as a mythological character by the 21st century was constantly supplemented with small details. We can say that most of the works of literature and cinema, in which the werewolf fox was encountered, for the most part, were very strongly romanticized. Remaining in its own way a relatively neutral character, Huli Jing nevertheless gradually becomes one of the most popular characters of many writers and screenwriters, not only in China but also in many other countries. A striking and original example of where the Huli Jing appears is the work of the writer Ken Liu entitled "Good Hunt". The author presents not only a very interesting view of the Huli Jing but also explains why the legendary characters of Chinese mythology are gradually disappearing from the memory of the Chinese people. (Ken Liu, 2012, 202.)<br />
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In addition to literary works, Huli Jing is quite often encountered in Chinese cinema, as an episodic character or a protagonist. One of the most striking images of a werewolf fox can be considered the film "Painted Skin (畫皮)", where the main character is Huli Jing and must eat men's hearts to maintain her youth and beauty. This film is based on the story of Pu Songling and is one of the key works of cinema and modern Chinese culture, which fully reveals the tragedy of the werewolf fox. Besides, Huli Jing is featured in a fairly large number of Chinese television series, each of which gives its own view of what character Huli Jing should be. (Wikipedia 2020a)<br />
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Quite a lot of information about werewolf foxes can be obtained from the TV series "The Legend of the Nine-Tailed Fox" released in 2016. The main interest here is not only a rather vivid description of the Huli Jing, which according to the plot are one family and are forced to seek and return to their place the sacred fruit from the magic garden. This, perhaps, is an attempt to provide an explanation of the true nature of werewolf foxes, who for a long time rushed from good to evil. (Wikipedia 2020b) <br />
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To sum up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the ancient Chinese dynasties, the image of werefoxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But further, the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love. The appearance of the Huli Jing, which rushes from good to evil for many years, has been romanticized and transformed, becoming a more positive character, although not devoid of some negative features. (Pu Songling 2008, 141)<br />
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'''2. Kitsune (キツネ) in Japan''' <br />
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In Japanese folklore, these animals have great knowledge, long life, and magical abilities. Chief among them is the ability to take shapeshift themselves; the fox, according to legend, learns to do this after reaching a certain age (usually a hundred years old, although in some legends it is fifty). Kitsune usually take the form of seductive beauty, a pretty young girl, but sometimes they turn into men. It should be noted that in Japanese mythology there was a mixture of indigenous Japanese beliefs that characterized the fox as an attribute of the god Inari ("Fox-messenger") and the Chinese, who considered foxes to be werewolves, a genus close to demons. Other abilities commonly ascribed to kitsune include the ability to take possession of other people's bodies, to breathe out or otherwise create fire, to appear in other people's dreams, and the ability to create illusions so complex that they are almost indistinguishable from reality. Some of the legends go further, talking about kitsune with the ability to warp space and time, drive people crazy, or take on such inhuman or fantastic forms as trees of indescribable height or the second moon in the sky. (Bathgate 2004, 102)<br />
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Kitsunes are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox by himself. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky. A kitsune can have up to nine tails. In general, it is believed that the older and stronger the foxes are, the more tails they have. Some sources even claim that a kitsune grows an extra tail every hundred or thousand years of its life. However, foxes found in fairy tales almost always have one, five, or nine tails. When kitsune are given nine tails, their fur turns silvery, white, or gold. (Bathgate 2004, 96)<br />
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'''3. Kumiho (구미호) in Korea'''<br />
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Kumiho - (구 "ku" - nine, 미 "mi" - tail, 호 "ho" - fox - "fox with nine tails") is a folklore animal, the fox of which is first mentioned in the era of Gojoseon. According to legends, only a fox that lives for a thousand years can become 구미호. One of her superpowers is transforming into a beautiful girl. Although in myths there are also references to the becoming of a charming young man. In this form, the mythical animal fell in love with the opposite sex, and then ate their liver (according to some beliefs, and the heart). Why exactly the liver? We can say that the liver contains human energy, that is, we eat and receive the energy that our liver stores. In a later period, kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever. There are several ways: 구미호 will not eat human flesh and kill for a thousand days. The second option is to eat the liver of a thousand men over a thousand years. The third - will live in a cave without sunlight, eating only wormwood and garlic. And also, if the person who recognized her as 구미호 in human form, keeps this secret for ten years.<br />
[https://thesupernaturalfoxsisters.com/2015/06/03/monster-of-the-week-kumiho/]<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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Shapeshifter – 成精<br />
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Creature –生物<br />
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Seductive –诱人的<br />
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Damnation –诅咒<br />
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Metaphor –隐喻<br />
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Ascribe –属性<br />
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Indigenous –土着<br />
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Deity – 反面人物<br />
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Liver – 肝脏<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Bathgate, Michael 迈克尔·巴斯盖特 (2004). The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities. 狐狸在日本宗教和民间传说中的手工艺：变身者，转变和重复。// Routledge. -2004. - 190.<br />
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*Pu Song-ling 蒲松龄. (2008). Fox charm. Monks-wizards. 狐狸的魅力。 僧侣向导。// Eastern literature 东方文学。 –2008. - 280.<br />
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*Kang Xiaofei 康小飞. (2006). The cult of the fox: Power, gender, and popular religion in late imperial and modern China. 狐狸的崇拜：帝国晚期和近代中国//Columbia University Press 哥伦比亚大学出版社的权力，性别和大众宗教. – New York 纽约, 2006. – 269.<br />
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*Ken Liu 刘坚. (2012). Good Hunting 狩猎愉快.// Strange Horizons 奇怪的地平线. - 2012. - 431.<br />
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*Xu Zhonglin. 徐忠林. (1992). Creation of the Gods 上帝的创造.// Translated by Gu Zhizhong 顾志忠译. – Beijing 北京, 551. <br />
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*Wikipedia 维基百科. (2020a). - Painted Skin (2008 film) 畫皮 (2008年電影) - https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%95%AB%E7%9A%AE_(2008%E5%B9%B4%E9%9B%BB%E5%BD%B1)<br />
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*Wikipedia 维基百科. (2020b). - Legend of Nine Tails Fox 青丘狐传说 - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend_of_Nine_Tails_Fox<br />
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*The Supernatural Fox Sisters 邪恶力量狐狸姐妹 - Monster of the Week: Kumiho - https://thesupernaturalfoxsisters.com/2015/06/03/monster-of-the-week-kumiho/<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What was the attitude towards the Huli Jing in Ancient China?<br />
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2. Can we characterize Kitsune as a positive or negative character?<br />
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3. Could Kumiho become human forever?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. Initially, in ancient China, Huli Jing was perceived in a negative context. Only later, towards the Middle Ages, the attitude towards them changed and people began to perceive them as victims of circumstances.<br />
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2. In Japanese mythology, Kitsune was not unambiguously good or bad creatures.<br />
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3. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever.<br />
References ..................<br />
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==Chinese Characters - Gu Dongfang 顾东方 - 202070080635 - Interpretation 英语口译==<br />
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===Chinese Characters===<br />
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===Origin===<br />
[[File:hanzi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|hanzi, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]<br />
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Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years.According to legend, Chinese characters were invented earlier by Cangjie (c. 2650 B.C.E.), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Fu Hsi. The legend tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì—Chinese characters. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of civilization, for good and for bad.（Boltz, William G. 2003）<br />
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===Evolution of Chinese characters===<br />
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Chinese characters from the earliest Chinese hieroglyphs to today’s simple characters have undergone through a very long process of development which can be divided into two periods: ancient writing and modern writing. Associated with these two periods, Chinese characters had experienced several times of evolution into many different script forms. Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC) is the earliest systematic form of Chinese characters inscribed on animal bones and tortoise shells. Then Chinese characters evolved through the bronze script of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 century BC), seal scrip in the late Zhou Dynasty and Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), official script in the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and regular script. Based on pictographs, Chinese characters gradually developed from the form of drawings to strokes and from complex to simple ones.(Wang Xianchun 2002)<br />
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===Ancient Chinese characters===<br />
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====Oracle bone script====<br />
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Oracle bone script (Chinese: 甲骨文, Pinyin: jiăgŭwén) is the inscription on animal bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC). It was first excavated by the local farmers in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province and was sold as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine called “long” (dragon bones).<br />
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====Bronze script====<br />
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In the “Age of Bronze Ware” of China during the period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ware was cast as a container, and most often as the sacrificial vessels to inscribe great events such as sacrifice, battle results, trade of slaves, etc. in a style just like the oracle bone script. In the Shang Dynasty, the inscriptions on bronze ware had very few characters, the form of which is extremely close to that of the oracle bone script. The size, complexity, formation of the Chinese characters are inconsistent. However, in the Zhou Dynasty, the characters in bronze inscriptions were simpler, and the size and formation were more fixed. The bronze inscriptions looked like drawings but had made significant progress from pictographic forms to block-shaped linear words we use today.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
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====Seal script====<br />
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) begun to be used in Qin State. This script was usually written on bamboo slips and pieces of silk or inscribed on rocks and stones. Owing to the regular and symmetric structure, rounded and graceful lines, it is deemed to be the most beautiful style of characters in ancient China by calligraphers. It is still used for inscribing names on a seal today. There are two kinds of seal script: large or great seal script and lesser or small seal script.The large seal script (Chinese: 大篆, Pinyin: dàzhuàn) is a traditional reference to all types of Chinese writing systems used before the Qin Dynasty. However, due to the lack of research achievements and precision, scholars often avoid the large seal script, instead of using more specified terms to the examples of writing. The large seal script was widely used in many vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC).After the Qin State conquered the other six states and established the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), Emperor Qinshihuang unified characters in order to strengthen his control. Based on the Large Seal script and rearranging the variant forms of characters in each state, the unified characters were decreed, called lesser or small seal script (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiăozhuàn) which was the official style of characters in Qin Dynasty used for all the documents of the government. It was the result of the first extensive simplification and standardization of Chinese characters. Compared with the oracle bone script and bronze script, in the lesser seal script, the forms of characters were simpler, the writing method was consistent, and the character pattern was more orderly. <br />
The Ancient Writing Period, from the earliest known oracle bone script to the development of the seal script, lasted about 1,160 years. And the lesser seal script marked the end of the ancient Chinese characters.（ Wang Enquan 2006)<br />
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===Modern characters===<br />
====Clerical script====<br />
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After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.<br />
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.（After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.<br />
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.( Wang Enquan 2006)<br />
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====Regular script====<br />
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Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people for generations even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage. <br />
===Formation of Chinese characters===<br />
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====Pictograms====<br />
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Contrary to popular belief, pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 (rì) for "sun," 月 (yuè) for "moon," and 木 (mù) for "tree."（Nie Yan 2005)<br />
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====Pictophonetic compounds====<br />
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Also called semantic-phonetic compounds, or phono-semantic compounds, this category represents the largest group of characters in modern Chinese. Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.Examples are 河 (hé) river, 湖 (hú) lake, 流 (liú) stream, 冲 (chōng) riptide, 滑 (huá) slippery. All these characters have on the left a radical of three dots, which is a simplified pictograph for a water drop, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
====Ideograph ====<br />
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Also called a simple indicative, simple ideograph, or ideogram, characters of this sort either add indicators to pictographs to make new meanings, or illustrate abstract concepts directly. For instance, while 刀 (dāo) is a pictogram for "knife," placing an indicator in the knife makes 刃 (rèn), an ideogram for "blade." Other common examples are 上 (shàng) for "up" and 下 (xià) for "down." This category is small, as most concepts can be represented by characters in other categories.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
====Logical aggregates====<br />
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Also translated as associative compounds, characters of this sort combine pictograms to symbolize an abstract concept. For instance, 木 (mu) is a pictogram of a tree, and putting two 木together makes 林 ,meaning forest. Combining 日 (rì) sun and 月(yuè) moon makes 明(míng) bright, which is traditionally interpreted as symbolizing the combination of sun and moon as the natural sources of light. <br />
====Associate transformation====<br />
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Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 (kǎo) to verify and 老 (lǎo) old were once the same character, meaning "elderly person," but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
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Also called phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 (zì), which has lost its original meaning of nose completely and exclusively means oneself, or 萬 (wan), which originally meant scorpion but is now used only in the sense of ten thousand.(Liu Youxin 1998)<br />
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===Chinese Characters and the Information Age===<br />
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Nowadays, with the continuous development of digitization, Chinese characters have been effectively imported into various electronic media. In a sense, Chinese characters in the electronic age are also facing reform, and there will be more advanced means to promote the role of Chinese characters in the electronic information age, so that they can better serve the public.<br />
Chinese characters are undoubtedly China's most beautiful and valuable asset, representing not only a national spirit, but also the roots of the Chinese nation, the soul of China. As Mr. Yu Guangzhong once said, as long as the soul of Cangjie remains intact, the image, the magnet-like centripetal force, is bound to exist, and the memories and hopes of our ancestors will have a new anchor.（Yi Lixin 2004）<br />
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===Terms and expressions===<br />
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1.Oracle Bone Inscriptions 甲骨文<br />
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2.Bronze Inscriptions 金文<br />
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3.Small seal characters 小篆<br />
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4.Official script 隶书<br />
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5.Regular script 楷书<br />
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6.Cursive writing 草书<br />
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7.Cang Jie 仓颉<br />
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8.Clerical script 楷书<br />
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9.Su Shi 苏轼<br />
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10. Wang Xizhi 王羲之<br />
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11.Ou Yangxun 欧阳询<br />
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12.Yan Zhenqing 颜真卿<br />
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13.Pictograms 象形<br />
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14. Pictophonetic compounds 指事<br />
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15.Ideograph 会意<br />
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16.Logical aggregates 形声<br />
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17.Associate transformation 转注<br />
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18.Borrowing 假借<br />
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===Questions===<br />
1. How many Chinese characters are there?<br />
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2. How many letters are in the Chinese pinyin?<br />
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3. How many formations of Chinese characters? What are they?<br />
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===Answers===<br />
1. According to the latest statics, there are nearly 91251 Chinese characters recorded .<br />
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2. There are 26 letters in Chinese alphabet.<br />
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3. Six formations are included in Chinese characters system, and they are Pictograms<br />
Pictophonetic compounds,Ideograph, Logical aggregates, Associate transformation,Borrowing<br />
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===References===<br />
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1.Wang Xianchun王显春. 汉字的起源[M]. 学林出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
2.Liu Youxin刘又辛. "关于汉字发展史的几个问题(上)." 语文建设 12(1998):34-37.<br />
<br />
3.Boltz, William G. 2003. The origin and the development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental series), v. 78. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0940490188<br />
<br />
4.Chinese Characters, Chinese Culture and Chinese Mind . Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia, https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/12-Yuxin-Jia-Xuerui-Jia.pdf,2005.<br />
<br />
5.Yi Lixin伊立新. 论汉字与中国文化的相互影响[J]. 沈阳建筑大学学报(社会科学版), 2004, 6(001):58-60.<br />
<br />
6.Wang Enquan王恩全. 中国汉字的形成及演变规律之考辨[J]. 沈阳农业大学学报(社会科学版), 2006(03):551-553.<br />
7.Nie Yan聂焱. "论汉字造字法的思维模式." 湘南学院学报 03(2005):63-67+81.<br />
--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 12:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Gu dongfang<br />
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==Handcraft - Chinese Knots - Guan Qinqing 管钦清 - MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
===A.Chinese Knots===<br />
[[File:Chinese Knots.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Click [https://baike.so.com/doc/1207058-1276830.html]for original source.]]<br />
====1.A Brief Introduction about Chinese Knots====<br />
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The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.It originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, to the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft.The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronzes of the Warring States Period.（Li Ku 2016，125）<br />
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The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now, Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and <br />
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decorations and aesthetics, which <br />
earned the knot as its name.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002,38）<br />
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====2.The Classification of Chinese Knots====<br />
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There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）,Good Luck Knot（吉祥<br />
结）,Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）,Sauvastika Knot（万字结）,Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）,Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）,Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）,Caisson Celling Knot（藻井结）,Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.（Li Ku 2016，125）<br />
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Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots,which are the Double Coin Knot,the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot. <br />
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=====2.1.The Double Coin Knot=====<br />
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Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture,politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but value, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. Every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money".（ Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，40） <br />
<br />
Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc. （Li Ku 2016，126）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.The Good Luck Knot=====<br />
<br />
As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and is also one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.<br />
And the knot shape is beautiful,varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.（Wu Hongfang 2004,120）<br />
<br />
=====2.3.The Pan Chang Knot=====<br />
<br />
Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the <br />
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people. Pan Chang (盘长） is a symbol of the origin of all things, and is one of the most important basic knots. It is <br />
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，44）<br />
<br />
====3.The Knitting Method of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots. The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots, so as to make a group of varied knots.（Xu Xing 2004,46）<br />
<br />
The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then determine its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art.（Xu Xing 2004,47）<br />
<br />
====4.The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of <br />
rope and thread.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of <br />
Dragons.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）<br />
<br />
Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of <br />
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交<br />
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）<br />
<br />
====5.Comparisons between Chinese Knots and Cross Necklaces====<br />
<br />
=====5.1.Different Cultural Connotations=====<br />
<br />
From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot generally have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace,however, is symbolic of <br />
Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient <br />
Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners.Therefore,such cross <br />
ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,45）<br />
<br />
=====5.2.Different Shapes=====<br />
<br />
Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have <br />
different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.（Xu Xing 2004,47）<br />
<br />
====6.References====<br />
<br />
*Li Ku 李库. (2016). 符号学视角下的中国结解读 [The Analysis of Chinese Knots from the Perspective of Semiology ]. ''艺海'' Yi Hai (08) 125-126.<br />
<br />
*Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 李立芳，孙建君. (2002). ''民间绳结'' [Folk Knots]. Wuhan: Hubei Fine Arts Publishing House 湖北美术出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xing 许星. (2004). 路论中国结 [On the Chinese Knots]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (02) 46-47.<br />
<br />
*Wu Hongfang 邬红芳. (2004). 中国结的意象美学特征 [The Rhetorical-Beauty of Chinese Knots]. ''装饰'' Decoration (09) 120-121.<br />
<br />
*Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian王眯珠,孙荪,曲洪建. (2014). 怀旧心理与创新意识对中国结的影响分析[The Analysis of the Impact on Chinese Knots from Reminiscence and Consciousness of Innovation ]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (11) 43-50.<br />
<br />
===B. Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Double Coin Knot 双钱结<br />
<br />
Good Luck Knot 吉祥结<br />
<br />
Chinese Button Knot 纽扣结<br />
<br />
Sauvastika Knot 万字结<br />
<br />
Oxalis Knot 酢浆草结<br />
<br />
Pan Chang Knot 盘长结<br />
<br />
Round Brocade Knot 团锦结<br />
<br />
Caisson Celling Knot 藻井结<br />
<br />
Cross Knot 十字结<br />
<br />
Ping Knot 平结<br />
<br />
tie the knot 永结同心<br />
<br />
luck money 压岁钱<br />
<br />
the bishop's identity 主教职权<br />
<br />
===C. Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the Chinese knot?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know the names of the main Chinese knots? What are they?<br />
<br />
3. What do "绳" and "结" mean in Chinese culture?--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:04, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.<br />
<br />
2.There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot,Good Luck Knot,Chinese Button Kno,Sauvastika Knot,Oxalis Knot,Pan Chang Knot,Round Brocade Knot,Caisson Celling Knot,Cross Knot and Ping Knot.<br />
<br />
3.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of "knot", which means reunion and happiness.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 07:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Literature, Chinese Mythology, Guirou, Barthelemy, 201921080010, Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
[[File:Chinese Mythology.jpg|thumb|right|Panku]]<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The Chinese’s life is full of mythological traditions such as, the creation of universe, science, literature, philosophy, dragons, tortoises, phoenixes, unicorns, birds, and flowering fruit trees etc. This myth is characterized by the interaction of the pros and cons, yin and yang, good and evil, light and dark, male and female, heaven and earth, strong and weak and so forth. Panku was an important figure in Chinese mythology, the first living being and the creator of universe in some versions of Chinese mythology.(Su Shuyang 2010, 2). In world mythology; every peoples have it own myths, different fairy tales, but there is some similarities in common.<br />
<br />
===A. Panku Created the World===<br />
<br />
In the beginning, the world didn’t exist; there wasn’t sky, earth, water, animals, birds, plants, human, in other word, the universe was empty. The force of universe was concentrated inside a mysterious egg. This egg, after growing many years, it becoming a big form of ball and finally give birth to Panku. Panku, who was deeply sleeping in peace in his eggshell for eighteen thousand years, finally awaken by the chaos of the exterior movement and try to calm down. Therefore, the sky and the earth were created. His body was well-formed with giant muscular and the size of his body was about ninety thousand li (about thirty thousand miles), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).<br />
<br />
At that moment the sky and the earth was very close and Panku couldn’t fully stand on his limbs, then Panku pushed the sky with his two hands to farther away from the sky. As time was passing, the sky and earth become farther from each other and the size of Panku increasing within. The size of Panku became enormous, 90,000 "li" (45,000 kilometer) was the high distance between the sky and the earth, that is why today we talk about “ Nine- Layer Sky.” For many centuries Panku pushed the sky with all the forces of his body to avoid the chaos, hence, he cried for help but no one helped him because he was alone in the world. He struggled for ten thousand years until the sky and earth was completely separated into the forces of yin (dark) and yang (light). Slowly, he became weaker and older, and then he felt down on the ground and his body became a mighty crash. Thus, his right eye became the moon and his left eye became the sun; his head and limbs became mountains; his blood vessels became seas and rivers, his flesh became fertile lands; his hair became trees, grass, flowers; his teeth and bones became treasures (gold, metals, silver, copper); his sweat and tear represent the rain; his voice represent thunder and lightning and his breath represent winds and clouds. Finally; he finished his work, Panku, the creator of the world was dead and left behind him a landscape (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).<br />
<br />
===B. NuWa Created Human Beings===<br />
<br />
[[File:Picture 2.jpg|thumb|right|Fushi and Nuwa]]<br />
<br />
Nuwa, was created out of earth from Panku flesh, was a goddess in Chinese mythology or viewed as old grandmother with a body of snake and human face. She was the creator and ancestor of human beings who appeared in the world after Pangu’s death (Su Shuyang 2010, 5).<br />
<br />
As she was the only human living beings in the world, by the passing time, she felt lonely and decided to create human to her image in order to feel more comfortable to her world. Thus, she was seated down thinking about her new project of creating human beings and finally she got an idea. Then she created human beings by kneading mud with human forms and then these “mud figures” became alive. They started walking, speaking, sing, dancing, laughing and endowed with a human beings capacity. Nuwa was very happy with her news creatures who surrounding him by crying our Mum. Then, she continued to create days and nights during a long period until she got tired. Hence, they were spread out everywhere; on the mountains, on the hills, near the rivers, on the straight spaces etc. During a long period of years, Nuwa and her creatures were living together without any particular distinction about man and woman and any marriage. As time was passing; people were getting old and dying one after other, so, Nuwa started to worry about her offspring, what the world will be after all the men would have died. Nuwa then divided men and women and taught them marriage and how to reproduce between couples in order the lineage of mankind will never end. She gave her best wishes and advises to human beings, and since then, people continue to marry and give birth.(Su Shuyang 2010, 5, 6).<br />
<br />
===C. Fushi Taught the People=== <br />
<br />
In Chinese mythology, it is generally said that the rulers were half-gods and half humans and they could change their shapes of state, either in animal or in human being. According to Chinese myths; the rulers didn’t die, when their time on the earth expired they ascended to the heavens to have a rest. Fushi was the first who taught to people how to survival on the earth such as: hunting, using fire, writing etc. (Irene Dea Collier,2001, 33). In some stories Fushi was the husband of Nuwa, whereas in some other it wasn’t. Anyway they are an important figures of Chinese civilization .<br />
<br />
Fushi noticed that the new world (people) couldn’t support to the difficulties of the life and decided to help them thanks to his supernatural powers. He taught them how to make a fish net by twisting plants fibers and form ropes. With these ropes, he wove a fish net to fish fishes in water and feed people, and with these ropes also people could across mountain peaks to search food. Then, before people were eating raw meat or fish but Fushi showed them how to use fire by twirling two willow sticks together. Moreover, Fushi taught them many things including agriculture, breeding, security, music, healing and many else. As time was passing; Fushi getting old, and he knew that he could not live for ever , then he decided to create a system of writing "trigrams", in order people can learn and remember about his teachings for better life. He designed some kind of marks onto turtle shells, bamboo sticks and animal bones which became later words and numbers. This "trigrams" was also a mean to interpret future and consult oracle about the right ways to follow (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35, 36).<br />
<br />
Finally, Fushi gave his last gift (music) in order people can live in harmony and peace after him. So, Fushi taught them how to make musical instrument and use it, a "pipa" (lute).That is why, music has a great importance in Chinese history. Each time we play music, it reminds us to Fushi great teachings. Fushi’s time took end on the earth and finally he ascended to heavens hoping that his disciples (humans) live in peace (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 39).<br />
<br />
===D. Water War===<br />
<br />
Territorial conquest or extension of a territory was a preoccupation of each ruler since the beginning of the world and still now is one of the sources of conflicts in the world. So, Gong, god of water fought against Zurong, god of fire to extend his territory. Historically, both have terrible tempers and described as a very big giants with different shapes, Gong shown with a snake’s body and a human face with red hair. Meanwhile Zurong shown with a massive human body with broad shoulders, red skin, and a red beard (Irene Dea Collier 2001,44).<br />
<br />
Gong poked the earth with bouts of rain and floods which caused damages included on people, houses, animals, trees and many others living beings. People and others gods asked him to stop destroying but Gong remained pitiless and severe to their inquiries. Zurong, god of fire who ruled the earth in peace before Gong, finally intervened to stop him. So Zurong challenged Gong to regain the control of the earth. Firstly, they started to wrestle on the sky for many days, as both of them were using their supernatural powers, the sky shook with thunder, and lightning flashed across the sky. Then, they got down in the earth to continue fighting but fortunately Gong and his army were defeated and all the people and gods rejoiced Gong’s defeat. Since then, the world is full of conflicts and insecurities (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48, 49).<br />
<br />
In summary, like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has been recorded in oral form in literature from various regional and cultural traditions. China is the home of many mythological traditions which involves the creation of world, gods, deities, supernatural powers, culture, people, houses, cooking writing, ancestors etc.<br />
<br />
===E. Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Chinese Mythology 中国神话<br />
<br />
Panku 盤古<br />
<br />
Yin/Yang 陰陽 / 阴阳<br />
<br />
Nuwa 女媧<br />
<br />
Fushi 伏羲<br />
<br />
Water War 水战<br />
<br />
===F. Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why an egg a good symbol for the beginning of the world?<br />
<br />
2. Why Nuwa decided to create human beings?<br />
<br />
3. What did Fushi taught to people?<br />
<br />
4. What was the cause of Gong and Zurong’s war and who won?<br />
<br />
===G. Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Because egg is the symbol of life and many creatures are born from the eggs, even its physical form is round like the world and it contains necessary elements to create a life.<br />
<br />
2. Firstly, for companionship and secondly to guarantee her offspring by teaching them the importance of marriage and how to feed and raise their children. She also wanted to humans to live independently without help of god.<br />
<br />
3. He taught to people how to live conveniently such as: fishing, how to make fire, cooking food and meat with fire, oracle consulting, and how to make and use lute.<br />
<br />
4. Gong wanted to extend his territory which resulted to water damage and Zurong intervened and defeated him by wrestling.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Su Shuyang. (2010).''CHINA: Insight Traditions and Culture''.(Youth Edition). DOLPHIN BOOKS China International Publishing Group. (2010)-2-4-5-6.<br />
<br />
* Irene Dea Collier. (2001). "Chinese Mythology". Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. (2001)-33-35, 36-39-44-48-49.<br />
<br />
* https://pic.17qq.com/uploads/ijbphegbibz.jpeg<br />
<br />
* https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pangu-lifting-heaven-picture.jpg--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 08:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gods and Immortals - Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese gods and immortals===<br />
<br />
====Chinese mythology system====<br />
<br />
Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, p. 71 )<br />
<br />
Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, p.4)<br />
<br />
The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, pp. 34-40)<br />
<br />
Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, pp. 27-28)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, p37)<br />
<br />
====神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān====<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)<br />
<br />
There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)<br />
<br />
====Eight immortals====<br />
<br />
The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 40-45)<br />
<br />
The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (張果老), Lan Caihe (藍采和), Li Tieguai (李鐵拐), Zhongli Quan (鍾離權), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50) <br />
<br />
The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
immortals 仙 <br />
<br />
mythology 神话，神话学<br />
<br />
cosmology 宇宙论，宇宙观 <br />
<br />
monolithic 整体（式）的<br />
<br />
the Battle of Zhuolu 涿鹿之战<br />
<br />
pantheistic 泛神论的 <br />
<br />
polytheistic 多神论的<br />
<br />
Three Pure Ones 三清<br />
<br />
anthropomorphic 人格化的<br />
<br />
tutelary 守护神 <br />
<br />
deity 神<br />
<br />
Buddha 佛 <br />
<br />
Shakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br />
<br />
Amitabha 阿弥陀佛 <br />
<br />
Amitāyus 无量寿佛<br />
<br />
celestial 天的 <br />
<br />
Bodhisattva 菩萨 <br />
<br />
Pure Land 极乐世界 <br />
<br />
vessels 法器<br />
<br />
Covert Eight Immortals 暗八仙 <br />
<br />
Taoist 道家的，道士<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What are the topics of the Ancient mythology?<br />
<br />
2. What are the differences among shén, dì and xiān?<br />
<br />
3. What do the Eight immortals represent respectively?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths，which can be divided into four categories--the creation myths, myths of heroes, myths about Tribal war, and myths about human and nature.<br />
<br />
2. shén and dì corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". The latter term 仙 xiān , refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".<br />
<br />
3.Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Zhang Guolao, Lan Caihe, Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi and Cao Guojiu are representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble respectively.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng. (2014). ''Marxism and Religion.'' Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.<br />
<br />
Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). ''Handbook of Chinese Mythology''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Bai Yang. (1987). ''Chinese Huamn History''. Time Literature & Art Press.<br />
<br />
Olson, Stuart Alve. (2002). ''Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun''. Bear & Company.<br />
<br />
Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism <br />
<br />
Hu Yanan.(2020). ''From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty'' [D].Harbin Normal University.<br />
<br />
Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). ''An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality''. Sussex Academic Press.<br />
<br />
Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. (1987). ''A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals''. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press.<br />
<br />
Little, Stephen (2000). ''Taoism and the Arts of China.'' The Art Institute of Chicago.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Classical Prose Movement of late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
“The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, also known as the Classical Prose Movement, is a movement with the style reform as its surface and Confucianism Renaissance as its depth.” (Li Shufang 2003, 1-3) The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty. This movement took clarity and precision as priorities, and it stood against the florid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular starting from the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. Therefore, Han Yu, together with Liu Zongyuan, launched this movement to make a difference so that they can revive Confucianism and promote their political thoughts. This movement had a tendency to follow the spirit of pre-Qin prose rather than to imitate it directly. People used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 1)<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
The Classical Prose Movement went through three stages. The first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only writers but also theorists, forming the basis of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so that the movement could achieve further development and then revive the Confucianism. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-18)<br />
[suggestion:(Here, "Both" can be replaced by "They both".)Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement……]<br />
<br />
However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed people to use pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 59-61)<br />
<br />
After that, Ouyang Xiu once again advocated the classical prose in the Song Dynasty. As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak during that period. This movement is consequently also called the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. (Song Juan 2005, 62-65) <br />
<br />
====Representatives====<br />
<br />
'''1.Han Yu'''<br />
<br />
Han Yu (768–824), courtesy name Tuizhi, is also known for his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. He was born in present-day Mengzhou, Henan, he was a Chinese prose writer, poet, and philosopher who influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Due to his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, he is described as “Comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe”. Meanwhile, he is often considered to be among China’s finest prose writers. Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun ranked him first in the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song"，and Su Shi, another Chinese poet, once praised that “His prose reversed the literary decline of eight dynasties”. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-17)<br />
<br />
Han Yu wrote a large volume of works, which includes over 700 poems and nearly 400 proses. He is especially famous for his ''On Teachers'', which says “A teacher is one who passes on the truth, imparts knowledge and solves puzzles”. This persuasive prose is short but well structured, and it has a strong appeal to people, which also has a positive impact on youth education. (Fan Aiju, Li Wei 2014, 124-125)<br />
<br />
'''2.Liu Zongyuan'''<br />
<br />
Liu Zongyuan (773–819), courtesy name Zihou, is also known by his art names He Dong Xian Sheng or Liu He Dong, was a Chinese litterateur, philosopher, politician and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. And Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, they were called Han Liu. Besides that, he has been regarded as one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song”, which also includes Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu. Liu's best-known travel pieces are the ''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou''. And one of his most famous poems is "Jiangxue". (Yang Shengli 2020, 42-44)<br />
<br />
'''3.Ouyang Xiu'''<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), courtesy name Yong Shu, is also known by his art names Zuiweng and Liu Yi Jushi. He was a Chinese essayist, historian, poet, calligrapher and even a politician of the Song Dynasty. Being a much-celebrated writer, both among his contemporaries and in subsequent centuries. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu was in charge of the writing of the ''New Book of Tang'', and he also wrote the ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' independently, the only book in the Twenty-Four Histories to have been written in private by a single author. As a poet, he was a noted writer of both the shi and ci genres. But it was his prose writings like ''Zuiweng Tingji'' that won him the greatest acclaim. The poem's most well-known line is: The Old Toper cares not for the wine, his interest lies in the landscape, an idiom still used in modern Chinese to describe someone with an ulterior motive. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56-57)<br />
<br />
Except for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu, there were many other representatives of this movement. For example, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi also made great contributions to the Classical Prose Movement. Considering their influences, they were also listed as Eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 82-83)<br />
<br />
====Masterworks====<br />
<br />
Under the influence of the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, there appeared a large volume of masterpieces, which have a far-reaching influence on later ages. Except for the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu, other works like ''Shang Zhongyong'' written by Wang Anshi, ''On Jia Yi'' and ''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' by Su Shi, were also considered the representative works of this movement. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 73-78)<br />
<br />
====Influence====<br />
<br />
The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty is a milestone during the development of Chinese ancient prose, it has a profound influence on the later schools of literature like Tang-Song School in the Ming Dynasty and Tong Cheng school in the Qing Dynasty. Besides that, it also helped to lay a solid foundation of prose in China and acted as a fine example for later scholars. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 85-86)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty 唐宋八大家<br />
<br />
Classical Prose Movement 古文运动<br />
<br />
''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou'' 《永州八记》<br />
<br />
''On Teachers'' 《师说》<br />
<br />
''New Book of Tang'' 《新唐书》<br />
<br />
''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' 《新五代史》<br />
<br />
''Zuiweng Tingji'' 《醉翁亭记》<br />
<br />
''Shang Zhongyong'' 《伤仲永》<br />
<br />
''On Jia Yi'' 《贾谊论》<br />
<br />
''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' 《赤壁赋》<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. Who were the first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
2. What does the Classical Prose Movement mean?<br />
<br />
3. What's political and religious purposes of the Classical Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The first promoters of this movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.<br />
<br />
2. The Classical Prose Movement refers to the cultural reform movement which promotes Gu Wen and opposes pianwen in late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
3. The reason why Confucious scholars promoted this movement is that they wanted to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Besides that, this movement is also an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
* Fan Aiju, Li Wei 范爱菊, 李伟. (2014). 唐代文豪韩愈的文学造诣 [The literary achievements of Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty] 兰台世界 ''Lantai World'' (21) 124-125.<br />
<br />
* Li Shufang. (2003). 古文运动的社会背景 [The Social Background of Sport of Ancient Chinese Prose]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学 (12) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Nie Yongqing 聂永清. (2007). 重读欧阳修 [Rethinking of Ouyang Xiu] 当代江西 ''Dang Dai Jiangxi'' (02) 56-57.<br />
<br />
* Qian Dongfu 钱东父. (1979). 唐宋古文运动 [''The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty''] Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
* Song Juan 宋娟. (2005). 古文运动、科举与“唐宋八大家” [Movement of the Ancient Chinese Prose, Imperial Examination and “Eight Great Writers in Tang and Song Dynasty”]. Mudanjiang: Mudanjiang Normal University 牡丹江师范学院 (02) 62-65.<br />
<br />
* Yang Shengli 杨胜利. (2020). “河东先生”柳宗元 [Liu Zongyuan:He Dong Xian Sheng]. 支部建设 Zhi Bu Jian She (08) 42-44.<br />
<br />
* Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (1996). 唐宋八大家论 [Talking of Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song]. Shanghai: Zhong Hua Book Company 中华书局 (06) 35-38.<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 06:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The tradition of Red Envelope and Lucky Money - HA, THI THU HANG - 201921080008 - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets-design.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Red Enverlop]]<br />
<br />
===The Chinese Red Envelope and Lucky Money Tradition===<br />
<br />
In Chinese and other East and Southeast Asian societies, Red Envelopes, also called Red Packets, Lucky Money, or ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ) in Chinese, ''Li shi'' / ''Lìxì'' in Vietnamese are popular monetary gift given during holidays or special occasions or festivals such as weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and some other Asian countries, especially widely seen during the Lunar New Year Festival. During the Lunar New Year, the adult, parents and grandparents gift with the red envelops for kids, which have money stuffed into. It is a traditional way to wish good luck and share blessings.<br />
<br />
The Lucky Money tradition began in the Han Dynasty. Rather than real money, they were small collectibles in the form of coins to ward off evil spirits. Auspicious phrases and symbols were engraved onto the surface. "worldwide peace" ( 天下太平 / ''Tiān xià tài píng''), “longevity and fortune” ( 千秋万岁 / ''Qiān qiū wàn suì''), dragons and phoenixes were common.<br />
<br />
These coins were tied together with red string. The practice transitioned to be wrapped in Red Paper and now, put into Red Envelopes.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Legend====<br />
<br />
In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called ''Sui'' ( 祟 ) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called ''Shou Sui'' ( 守祟 ).<br />
<br />
One tale of the folklore, once upon a time, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone in the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.<br />
<br />
There are also other legends about this custom related to the son of Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty - China and the Qin Dynasty. But in general, the New Year's blessing of the lucky money all originates with the meaning of giving happy money to children, wishing them to grow up their money so they can pass the new age with good things and luck.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Tradition====<br />
<br />
The Chinese custom of Lucky Money is called ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ). Chinese people really like red, so the Lucky Money is always red, symbolizing luck and happiness. The Red Envelope is called ''Yāsuìqián'' ( 压岁钱 ), which means "suppressing ghosts money". Those who receive a Red Envelope are wished another safe and pea. Sending Red Envelopes is a way to send good wishes another safe and peaceful year, and luck (as well as money). The amount of money in the Chinese Lucky Money must avoid the number 4 ( 四 / ''si'') and be sealed - that means no 4, 40, or 400 amounts - as the pronunciation of four in Chinese sounds like the word for death ( 死/ ''si''). However, amounts including the number 8 ( 八 / ''ba'') will bring good luck and prosperity ( 发财 / ''fa'').<br />
<br />
There are rules on how to properly receive an Envelope. Traditionally, children would kneel to receive their ''Hóngbāo'' from older family members, and this is still practiced in some areas of China. Red Envelopes are also always given and received with both hands, and should never be opened immediately and in the presence of the present-giver. After receiving the Lucky Money, the children have to put it all under the pillow after about a week to open it. The meaning of this is for the Lucky Money to protect the kids from the bad things that can happen in the new year. This is also the source of the traditional Chinese Lucky Money.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Alipay and WeChat Red Envelope'''<br />
<br />
[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets.jpg|300px|thumb|Right|Red Envelope - How much to give who - [[https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]]]]<br />
<br />
Moving on from the traditional Red Envelope, in the 21st century, many people exchange digital Red Envelopes instead of the traditional paper ones. These are virtual packets of very real cash, transferred directly to friends' and family's smartphones. Users can even send digital ''Hóngbāo'' to their favorite celebrities using apps such as Alipay, WeChat and the Weibo Red Envelope. WeChat Red Packet is an online money transfer with a colorful message via WeChat (a messaging Chinese app). In recent years, it has become popular among young people to send "Red Envelopes" via WeChat as a greeting. It has become a new way to greet friends or relatives during the Chinese New Year period.<br />
<br />
While the tradition centers on children, Red Envelopes are given to friends, family, colleagues and many other relatives - and different amounts of money are customary for each relation. For example, parents and grandparents get the most, but employees and even casual acquaintances can expect a Red Envelope.<br />
<br />
====Outside of China====<br />
<br />
The similar customs have been adopted throughout Southeast Asia and many other countries with sizable populations of Chinese descent. Each country has different ways of Lucky Money and changes over time, but the basic custom of Lucky Money is to want to send wishes of peace to all relatives and friends in the New Year.<br />
<br />
[[File:LunarNewYearinVietnam.jpg|250px|thumb|Right|Lunar New Year: ''Lì xì'' in Vietnam]]<br />
In Vietnam, Lucky Money is called ''Lì xì/Tiền mừng tuổi'' and very typical. On the first day of the Lunar New Year - one of the great holidays of the year, both adults and babies wear new clothes to celebrate the New Year relative. After that, the adults will give Lucky Money to the children with the message of good luck, good care and good study. Today, the tradition of Lucky Money in Vietnam is also expanded in the direction that children give Lucky Money to celebrate the age of grandparents and parents. This is a human custom that is increasingly promoted by the Vietnamese people.<br />
<br />
[[File:Otoshidama.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Otoshidama'' in Japan]]<br />
In Japan, Lucky Money is called ''Otoshidama'' (お 年 玉). Unlike other countries, the amount of Japanese Lucky Money depends on the child's age, the relationship of the family. ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes are usually white in color, not as common in red as other countries. The special thing about the Japanese Red Envelopes is that the envelopes are always sealed, symbolizing the privacy, not packaging. Moreover, the name of the person receiving the Lucky Money will be written on the Red Envelope to show respect for the recipient. The message of each ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes is a wish for a warm, peaceful and lucky New Year.<br />
<br />
[[File:Sabae.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''Sabae'' in Korea]]<br />
In Korea, Lucky Money is called ''Sabae''. On the New Year's day, children in traditionally dressed families perform the ritual of bowing to their seniors to show gratitude for birth and nurturing. After this ceremony, the children will receive Lucky Money together with wishes for health and peace in the New Year. The Lucky Money in Korea is more diverse than other countries, not only with money but also gold, pearls, gems, etc.<br />
<br />
[[File:Green Envelope-giving.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Green Envelope-giving'']]<br />
The Lucky Money tradition has also crossed cultural and religious boundaries, and ''Green Envelope-giving'' has even become a practice during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Fitr across Southeast Asia. It is also widely practiced by the Chinese and Southeast Asian diaspora across the world.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Lucky Money 利市/ Lì shì<br />
<br />
Red Envelope 红包/ Hóngbāo<br />
<br />
Worldwide Peace 天下太平/ Tiān xià tài píng<br />
<br />
Longevity and Fortune 千秋万岁/ Qiān qiū wàn suì<br />
<br />
Suppressing Ghosts Money/ Suppressing Sui Money 压岁钱/ Yā suì qián<br />
<br />
Sui 祟<br />
<br />
Shou Sui 守祟<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Do you know the origin of giving Lunar New Year's Lucky Money to children?<br />
<br />
2. Is the Lucky Money tradition exist in other countries than China?<br />
<br />
3. What are the rules on giving-receiving Red Envelopes?<br />
<br />
4. On what occasions people giving-receiving Red Envelopes?<br />
<br />
5. Do you ever receive a Red Envelope? On what occasion?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It began in the Han Dynasty and to protect children from being harmed.<br />
<br />
2. Yes. It is very polupar in Vietnam (''Lìxì''), Japan (''Otoshidama''), Korea (''Sabae''), and some other Southeast Asian countries.<br />
<br />
3. The giving amount of money must avoid the number 4 that sounds like the word of death in Chinese. The children, after receiving the Red Envelope, do not open it immediatedly and in the presence of the present-giver, but have to put it under the pillow after about a week to open it.<br />
<br />
4. Red Envelopes are most commonly associated with New Year, but they also turn up as part of many other occasions as a way of sharing good luck and blessings, like births, weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc.<br />
<br />
5. Yes. Red Envelope, or Lucky Money, or ''Lìxì'' is very typical in the Lunar New Year in my country Vietnam.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Red Envelope[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope]<br />
<br />
Fefe Ho - Red Pockets[https://chinesenewyear.net/red-pockets/]<br />
<br />
Cindy Tang - Red Envelopes/Packets (Hongbao) - Amount, Symbols and How to Give [https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]<br />
<br />
Chinese Red Envelope [https://www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/holidays/new-year/red-envelope.htm]--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Calendar, The 24 Solar Terms - He Changqi 何长琦 202070080589 MTI==<br />
<br />
===1. The Orgin and Development of The 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
"The 24 solar terms" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）<br />
<br />
By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature in the Warring States period, the complete 24 solar terms were basically formed. During the Qin and Han dynasties, a complete system was perfected and formed into today's complete 24 Solar Terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）<br />
<br />
===2. The Definition and Classification of the 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
“The twenty-four solar term” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
"The 24 solar term" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
===3.Folklore of the 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three aspects: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the 24 solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc. <br />
<br />
These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of Start of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of Start of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of Start of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan, Zou Yating 2020)<br />
<br />
===4.Importance and Values of the 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Importance in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people. (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
<br />
Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is also the most basic function and value of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humans according to natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of the people in ancient times. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were not just a time system, but a much more colourful connotation of life, and an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives. (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立)-- the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter-- have always been important festivals in history. At these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival. Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival are known as China's four traditional festivals. (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Values in Modern Society====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation. (Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020)<br />
<br />
It still has its practical values in modern society. Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system with a long history and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations, such as respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019) <br />
<br />
Lastly, the 24 solar terms are not only a time system, but also a living tradition full of rich connotations, which is an important part of people's lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
the Beginning of Spring 立春<br />
<br />
Beginning of Autumn 立秋<br />
<br />
Rain Water 雨水 <br />
<br />
End of Heat 处暑<br />
<br />
Insects Awakening 惊蛰 <br />
<br />
White Dew 白露<br />
<br />
Spring Equinox 春分 <br />
<br />
Autumnal Equinox 秋分<br />
<br />
Fresh Green 清明 <br />
<br />
Cold Dew 寒露<br />
<br />
Grain Rain 谷雨 <br />
<br />
First Frost 霜降 <br />
<br />
Beginning of Summer 立夏 <br />
<br />
Beginning of Winter 立冬<br />
<br />
Lesser Fullness 小满 <br />
<br />
Light Snow 小雪<br />
<br />
Grain in Ear 芒种 <br />
<br />
Heavy Snow 大雪<br />
<br />
Summer Solstice 夏至<br />
<br />
Winter Solstice 冬至<br />
<br />
Lesser Heat 大暑<br />
<br />
Lesser Cold 小寒<br />
<br />
Greater Heat 立春 <br />
<br />
Greater Cold 大寒<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?<br />
<br />
2.Where does the 24 solar terms originate from?<br />
<br />
3. What are the eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes？<br />
<br />
4.When was the 24 solar terms included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List? <br />
<br />
5.What are the food customs in the Beginning of Spring?<br />
<br />
6.Do you konw any other folklore of the 24 solar terms?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox.<br />
<br />
2.It originated in the Yellow River valley.<br />
<br />
3.Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice<br />
<br />
4.In 2016.<br />
<br />
5.People eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots.<br />
<br />
6.It is said that people should eat dumplings on the Start of Winter. There is a story about the birth of dumplings. According to legend, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, the "Sage of Medicine", invented the "jiaozi" to treat frostbite patients with frostbitten ears. He cooked mutton, hot peppers and herbs to dispel the cold and warm up the body. He wrapped these ingredients into a dough skin and made them into an ear shape. Since then, people have learned to make the food which became known as "dumpling" or jiaozi. Today there is still a saying that goes "Eat dumplings on Start of Winter Day, or your ears will be frostbitten."<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Yuan Jix. 袁济喜. (2016). "中华思想文化术语(3)”[Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture]. 外语教学与研究出版社”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Belarusian Literature and Arts Press] (Yuan Jix 2016:)<br />
<br />
Wang Jiahua. 王加华.（2019.9.20）"China Social Science Network" http://www.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/201909/t20190920_4974497_1.shtml<br />
<br />
Ding Yiming. Chang He. 丁一鸣. 常河（2020.11.17）"Chinanews" http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2020/11-17/9340057.shtml <br />
<br />
He Yannan. Zou Yating. 贺亚楠. 邹雅婷. (2020.2.4) “China Daily” https://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3901a9a3107bb6b579d18d.html<br />
<br />
==Literature, Yue Fu - Hu Baihui 胡百辉 202070080590 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Collection of Yue Fu Poetry《乐府诗集》===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
'''1.Brief introduction'''<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name. (Wu Ting 2007, 20)<br />
<br />
'''2.About the author'''<br />
<br />
Guo Maoqian (1041-1099) was born in Xucheng, Yunzhou, Song Dynasty. He is the grandson of Guo Quan, and the son of Guo Yuanming. Song Shenzong Yuanfeng seven years (1084), Cao joined the army in Henan Province. He wrote a hundred volumes of ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'', which was handed down from generation to generation. (Wu Ting 2007, 22)<br />
<br />
'''3.Content introduction'''<br />
<br />
It divides Yuefu Poems into 12 categories, including suburban Temple songs, Yan shooting songs, drum songs, horizontal blowing songs, Xianghe songs, etc. In these different kinds of music, the songs of Jiaomiao and yanshe belong to the movements used by the imperial court, and their ideological content and artistic skills are less desirable. There are also some works with poor artistic value. But generally speaking, most of the poems it collects are excellent folk songs and poems written by scholars with old Yuefu titles. In the existing poetry collection, "Yuefu Poetry Collection" is an important book with the most complete collection of all kinds of Yuefu Poetry in the past dynasties. (Wu Ting 2007, 30)<br />
<br />
====Masterpieces====<br />
<br />
'''1.''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'''''<br />
<br />
''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife, but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for love freedom and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)<br />
<br />
'''2.''Mulan Poetry'''''<br />
<br />
''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man, joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality. Therefore, it has strong artistic appeal. (Wu Ting 2007, 41)<br />
<br />
====Evaluation====<br />
<br />
'''1.Contributions'''<br />
<br />
The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105) <br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in the singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literature history and music history.There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but narrative is attached to lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)<br />
<br />
'''2.Shortcomings'''<br />
<br />
There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''. For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as an ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Wu Ting 吴婷. (2007). 乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究 [A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry'']. Nanchang:Nanchang University 南昌大学 (12) 20-41.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Yizhi 喻意志. (2002). 乐府诗集成书研究 [A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Normal University 上海师范大学 (10)105-107.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''《乐府诗集》<br />
<br />
Jiaomiao songs郊庙歌辞<br />
<br />
Yanshe songs燕射歌辞<br />
<br />
Guchui drum songs鼓吹曲辞<br />
<br />
Hengchui songs横吹曲辞<br />
<br />
Xianghe songs相和歌辞<br />
<br />
''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' 《孔雀东南飞》<br />
<br />
''Mulan Poetry''《木兰辞》--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:24, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When was Yuefu Poetry compiled？<br />
<br />
2.Which institution did "Yuefu" belong to?<br />
<br />
3.What are ''The Peacock Flies to Southeast''based on?--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:34, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.In Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
2.It belongs to the institution in charge of music.<br />
<br />
3.It is based on a marriage tragedy.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 10:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center>胡瑾，202070080591.</center><br />
===Eight Major Cuisines of China===<br />
<br />
====1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisines====<br />
<br />
As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's food culture began to take shape. At that time, Tai Gongwang was the most representative. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period under the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, the flavors of North and South dishes showed differences. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the southern cuisine and the northern cuisine formed their own systems. In the Southern Song Dynasty, sweet in south and salty in north was formed. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Cantonese Cuisine, and Su Cuisine became the most influential local dishes at that time, and they were called the "four major cuisines." By the end of the Qing Dynasty, four new local cuisines, Zhejiang Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine, were differentiated and formed, which together constituted the "eight major cuisines" of traditional Chinese cuisine. (Lv Xiaomin 2009, 64)<br />
<br />
====2. The Classification of Chinese Cuisines====<br />
<br />
China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavors. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)<br />
<br />
=====2.1 Shandong Cuisine=====<br />
[[File:Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Click [https://image.so.com/view?q=%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E8%8F%9C&src=tab_www&correct=%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E8%8F%9C&ancestor=list&cmsid=aa3db80e177adc3de3b63a7a4a92c45b&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=15&crn=0&bxn=15&fsn=90&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=241#id=a672aab13af3e8780511f47ae795adaf&currsn=0&ps=64&pc=64]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Besides, Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)<br />
<br />
=====2.2 Sichuan Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical and exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)<br />
<br />
=====2.3 Guangdong Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables, which originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, just bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)<br />
<br />
=====2.4 Fujian Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct feature is their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)<br />
<br />
=====2.5 Jiangsu Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh, sweet and delicate. Jiangsu Cuisine is well-known for its careful selection of ingredients, its methodology of meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
=====2.6 Zhejiang Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. And Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)<br />
<br />
=====2.7 Hunan Cuisine=====<br />
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessities in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)<br />
<br />
=====2.8 Anhui Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Anhui Cuisine focuses much more on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking methods are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)<br />
<br />
====3. A Comparison of Chinese-Western Diet Culture====<br />
<br />
Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. So there are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China. But it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)<br />
<br />
However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to both their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)<br />
<br />
There are also differences in the names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo Meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Bi Jiwan 毕继万. (1999). 跨文化非语言交际 [Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 78-83.<br />
<br />
Cai Hua 蔡华. (2009). 试论中西饮食文化的差异 [On the Differences between Chinese and Western Food Culture]. ''邵阳学院学报'' Journal of Shaoyang University 56-67.<br />
<br />
Du Xuezeng 杜学增. (1999). 中英文化习俗比较 [Comparison of Chinese and English Cultural Customs]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 212-217.<br />
<br />
Lv Xiaomi, Ding Xiao, Dai Yangyong 吕晓敏, 丁骁, 代养勇. (2008). 中国八大菜系的形成历程和背景 [The Formation Process and Background of Eight Major Cuisines in China ]. ''中国食物与营养'' Food and Nutrition in China (10) 62－64．<br />
<br />
Shi Hongmei 史红梅. (2009). 地理教学中我国地域饮食文化差异研究 [Study on the Differences of Regional Diet Culture in Geography Teaching in China]. ''河北师范大学'' Hebei Normal University 34-68.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
pot-stewed fowl 卤味<br />
<br />
stewing and simmering 炖，煨<br />
<br />
prickly ash 花椒<br />
<br />
fermented soybean 豆鼓<br />
<br />
Braised Dongpo Pork 东坡肉<br />
<br />
Buddha Jumps over the Wall 佛跳墙<br />
<br />
Kung Pao Chicken 宫保鸡丁<br />
<br />
Bean Sauce Tofu 麻婆豆腐<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. How many types of cuisines are there in china?<br />
<br />
2. What’s differences between Chinese and western diets?<br />
<br />
3. What is the origin of Dongpo Meat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Eight<br />
<br />
2. 1. The western cooking method is simpler than that in China. 2. Western diet pays attention to the nutrition while Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. 3. Western diet is a more rational diet. 4. Westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. 5. Westerners specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. 6. There are also differences in names of dishes. <br />
<br />
3. It is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
==Folk Art: Chinese Paper-cutting - Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 202070080636 MTI 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Paper-cutting 剪纸===<br />
<br />
===Text===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
With a long history, the Chinese paper-cutting could be dated back to 2000 years ago according to the archaeological records. It originated in ancient ancestor worship activities in which people pray for their ancestors and gods. Later, with the widespread paper-cutting techniques and people’s growing love, it gradually served as the decorations for the doors, walls, mirrors, lanterns and so on. Nowadays, paper-cutting has already become an integral part of Chinese traditional culture and serves as a window of the Chinese folk culture. (Jiao 2016, 3)<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
<br />
[[File:The Earliest Paper-cutting Found in Turfan.jpg|250px|thumb|right| The Earliest Paper-cutting Found in Turfan, image from www.Chinawriter.com.cn Click[http://www.chinawriter.com.cn/n1/2019/0115/c404102-30538973.html] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
The skill of cutting and carving appeared way before the invention of paper, and a number of materials, from the bark, leaves and animal skin, to later silk, were cut into certain shapes to decorate things, which laid a solid foundation for the art of paper-cutting. (Li & Zhang 2015, 7)<br />
<br />
As the paper is not easy to preserve, few of the paper works could survive to modern times. “The earliest such work surviving are five examples dating from the Northern Dynasties period (386-581), unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.” (Lu 2002, 8)<br />
<br />
In the Tang dynasty the custom of paper-cutting began to be popular, and the handicraft man cut paper to different shapes, each given a special name. Namely, the shape of square was named “Fangsheng”, the flower-shaped “Huasheng”, the people-shaped “Rensheng”. Two pieces of “Huasheng”, which were the remains in the Tang Dynasty, are preserved now in Shōsō-in in Japan. (Li & Zhang 2015, 7-8)<br />
<br />
By the Song Dynasty, with the prosperous economy and culture, in addition to daily decoration, paper-cutting was used in other crafts such as porcelain and blue calico. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
The art of paper-cutting became mature in Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. There emerged well designed paper-cutting works in the Yuan dynasty, and collectors began to collect paper-cutting as artworks. By the Ming Dynasty, the application of paper-cutting became even wider, with clip gauze lantern as a representative. It is a lantern with paper-cutting clipped in, candlelight reflecting the pattern. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
Since its birth, the art of paper-cutting has never been interrupted. In its long history, it evolved with pottery, printing, dyeing, and other forms of art, being an indispensable part of people’s life. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
====Five Regions====<br />
<br />
The distribution of Chinese folk paper-cutting, combining with the historical changes, geographical and ecological environment changes, cultural development differences, and so on, can be divided into five regions. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Northeast Changbai Mountains region: It mainly covers the Changbai Mountain area in Heilongjiang Province and Liaoning Province. As the birthplace of the nation of Man, the paper-cutting here herited the culture and customs of Man. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Yellow river basin region: With the north of Shaanxi' paper-cutting as the center, it is simple but more expressive because of its rough lines and designs. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Yangtze River basin region: It covers paper-cutting in the Provinces of Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu. Influenced by folk farming culture and the Confucian culture in the Han dynasty, paper-cutting in this region is in the rough in shape but bears a sense of delicacy. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The southeastern coastal region: It is highlighted by the paper-cutting of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. This region, more affluent. Paper-cutting creation, especially in Zhejiang Jinhua, Guangdong Foshan as the representative, in the history of cultural development, the vein is also more distinct, its aesthetic interest tends to be elegant and common appreciated. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Southwestern minority region: It is characterized by paper-cutting in the minorities in Provinces of Yunan and Guizhou. Many paper-cuttings are combined with embroidery patterns. The religious beliefs of this region obviously involved in the art of paper-cutting. (Wang 2006, 107)<br />
<br />
====Categories====<br />
<br />
[[File: Dyed Paper-cutting.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Dyed Paper-cutting, image from 360baike. Click [https://baike.so.com/doc/2408800-2546694.html] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
There are various ways to make paper-cutting works, including folding paper-cutting, smoked paper-cutting, color-blocking paper-cutting, and copper-lined paper-cutting, but the most common ones are mono-colored and dot-colored. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
Mono-colored paper-cutting refers to paper-cuttings cut or curved with a single-colored paper, mostly in red. The Chinese revered red since ancient times, and whenever there are grand celebration ceremonies or festivals, red is the main color, demonstrating warmth, passion, brightness, and happiness. Besides red, mono-colored paper-cutting is also available in black or other colors, which are used according to different circumstances, among which white paper-cutting is mostly used, as it could serve as the base sample for embroidery. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
Dyed paper-cutting is also called dotted paper cuttings. The handicraftsman would mostly choose Xuan paper as the material, a kind of thin white paper that absorbs water easily. Twenty or thirty pieces of such paper are put into a pile and the pattern is carved out with a knife. Then the mass of paper is dyed. The colors become rich and elegant after dying, with endless changes and a strong local flavor. The dyed paper-cutting is mainly found in Hebei, Shanxi, and Guangdong Provinces, among which the dotted paper cuttings in the Wei County, Hebei owns a very unique style. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
====Themes====<br />
<br />
Folk paper-cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions, totem worship, and religious beliefs. Its connection with the major festivals and traditional customs finds its full expression in every aspect of life. Paper-cutting is an essential folk activity in the villages. Traditionally, on the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month, women "drop their hoes and pick up scissors to cut papers"; on the 28th, flowers are pasted on the windows. On this day, every family paste window decorations, new year’s pictures, and Spring Festival couplets to create a lively environment for the new year. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
It is the rural working women who design and create the majority of the delicate paper-cuttings. When they are five or six years old or seven or eight years old, they begin to follow their mothers and grandmothers to learn paper-cutting. Mothers would pass on their treasured paper-cutting patterns to their daughters and daughters-in-law as family heirlooms. This is how China’s folk paper-cutting has been passed down from generation to generation. They devoted themselves to the paper-cutting that are rich in connotations such as prosperity, peace and good fortune, happiness, health, and longevity. It is the inheritance of this spirit that has enabled the art of paper-cutting to last for thousands of years. (Li & Zhang 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Li Youyou & Zhang JIngjuan 李有有&张静娟. (2015) ''剪纸 [paper-cut]'' 北京: 中国旅游出版社 Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.<br />
<br />
Lu Zhongmin. (2002) ''Folk Handicrafts''. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Minbo 王敏伯. (2006) ''中国民间剪纸史 [The History of Chinese Folk Paper-cut Arts]'' 杭州: 中国美术学院出版社 Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
color-blocking paper-cutting 拼色剪纸<br />
<br />
copper-lined paper-cutting 铜衬剪纸<br />
<br />
dyed paper-cutting 点染剪纸<br />
<br />
mono-colored paper-cutting 单色剪纸<br />
<br />
smoked paper-cutting 熏样剪纸<br />
<br />
Shōsō-in 正仓院<br />
<br />
Spring Festival couplets 春联<br />
<br />
totem worship 图腾崇拜<br />
<br />
Turfan 吐鲁番<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Where was the earliest paper-cutting found in China?<br />
<br />
2. How many regions the distribution of Paper-cutting can be divided into?<br />
<br />
3. Which two types of paper-cutting are the most common ones?<br />
<br />
4. What could be the themes of the paper-cutting?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They were unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.<br />
<br />
2. Northeast Changbai Mountains area, Yellow river basin area, Yangtze River basin area, The southeastern coastal area, and Southwestern minority areas.<br />
<br />
3. Mono-colored paper-cutting and dyed paper-cutting.<br />
<br />
4. Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions, totem worship, and religious beliefs.<br />
<br />
==Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center>蒋淇玮，202070080592.</center><br />
<br />
===The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing===<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who is respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)<br />
<br />
This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw through the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)<br />
<br />
Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)<br />
<br />
When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)<br />
<br />
There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about those poor people. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the day of the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrap the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult man, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)<br />
[[File:Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing.jpeg|300px|thumb|left|Click [http://www.zjjk365.com/Ne_d_gci_6_id_37065.html]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Nie Hongyan. 聂红艳. (2003). 张仲景故乡的二十四个故事(六) 饺子的来历 [Twenty-four Stories of Zhang Zhongjing's Hometown (VI) The Origin of Dumpling]. ''首都医药'' Capital Medicine (17) 40.<br />
<br />
Tan Rongzhou. 覃荣周. (2013). 张仲景对我国医学发展的历史贡献 [Zhang Zhongjing's Historical Contribution to the Development of Chinese Medicine]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (07) 55-56.<br />
<br />
Tian Yi 天一. (2020). 张仲景:“医圣”之名传天下 [Zhang Zhongjing: the Name of "Medical Sage" Spreads all over the World]. ''月读'' Monthly Read (03) 4-13.<br />
<br />
Zhang Maoyun. 张茂云. (2014). 伤寒杂病论成书年代及仲景生平年代考历[J] [Journal on the Written Time of ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'' and the Lifeyime of Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国中医药现代远程教育'' Chinese Medicine Modern Distance Education of China (04) 19-20.<br />
<br />
Zhang Deli. 张德礼. (2019). 心系百姓的“医圣”张仲景 [People's Medical Sage Zhang Zhongjing]. ''现代班组'' Morden Group (05) 37.<br />
<br />
Zhao Qingxin. 赵清新. (1999). 万世医宗张仲景 ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''解放军健康'' PLA Health (05) 36.<br />
<br />
Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan. 甄雪燕，王利敏，梁永宣. (2013). “医圣”张仲景 ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国卫生人才'' China Health Human Resources (07) 88-89.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
medical sage 医圣<br />
<br />
''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases''《伤寒杂病论》<br />
<br />
treatment based on syndrome differentiation/ diagnosis and treatment based on an overall analysis of the illness and the patient's condition 辩证施治<br />
<br />
yamen 衙门<br />
<br />
Great Cold ( 24th solar term ) 大寒<br />
<br />
Slight Cold ( 23rd solar term ) 小寒<br />
<br />
look, listen, question and feel the pulse -- four ways of diagnosis 望闻问切<br />
<br />
Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup 祛寒娇耳汤<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the honorable title Zhang Zhongjing addressed as?<br />
<br />
2. What's the official role Zhang once taken?<br />
<br />
3. When would Zhang treat patients for free at yamen?<br />
<br />
4. What's the most well-known and important masterpiece Zhang ever write? What's his motive of writing it?<br />
<br />
5. What's the relationship between Zhang Zhongjing and dumplings?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Chinese Medical Sage.<br />
<br />
2. Changsha magistrate.<br />
<br />
3. He treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month.<br />
<br />
4. ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases.'' Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases.<br />
<br />
5. Dumplings are derived from the recipe " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" developed by Zhang Zhongjing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:53, 2 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Medicine,_Zhang_Zhongjing.jpeg&diff=118439File:Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing.jpeg2020-12-21T12:57:05Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: Lei Fangyuan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing.jpeg&quot;</p>
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<div></div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Medicine,_Zhang_Zhongjing.jpeg&diff=118437File:Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing.jpeg2020-12-21T12:56:30Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: </p>
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<div></div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201215_cultexam_1&diff=11843320201215 cultexam 12020-12-21T12:55:39Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 MTI 英语笔译 */</p>
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<div>*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].<br />
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.<br />
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'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''<br />
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.<br />
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.<br />
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. <br />
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".<br />
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<br />
==Chinese Astrology - Alsied, Saffana==<br />
"Chinese Astrology"--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED ,Student No:201921080006.. Major..Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural studies.<br />
<br />
===The History===<br />
<br />
So, what is Chinese astrology anyway? Chinese astrology is an ancient art, which uses the time of birth, including the year, month, day, and time, to reveal insights into a person’s personality traits, lifestyle, health, career direction, and compatibility with others. Although the exact origin of the system is unknown, Chinese astrology has guided the Chinese for over five thousand years and has a profound influence on our lives. The Chinese system of zodiac is actually based on a ten-year Sun-Moon cycle that conforms to the ancient Chinese agricultural calendar. The cycle is divided into the five elements: Water, Wood, Fire, Earth, and Metal as well as the twelve animals, which represent each year. The system is influenced by Yin (female) and Yang (male) cosmic force, which is said to be an interpretation of universal harmony and balance. where the source is coming from ?<br />
<br />
===The Five Elements And YIN/YANG===<br />
<br />
Chinese believe that the five basic elements, Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water form everything in the Universe. As a fundamental part of the Oriental philosophy, the five elements are divided into Conducive and Controlling interrelationships. A Conducive interrelationship means that these five elements will produce one another and help nourish each other. We get Fire from Wood because fire is produced by burning wood. We get Earth from Fire because fire can burn everything into ashes (earth). We get Metal from Earth because all metal has to be extracted from the earth. We get Water from Metal because metal will change into liquid when heated. And, from Water we get Wood because water nourishes plants, thus producing wood. where is the quotation please?<br />
<br />
A Controlling interrelationship means that these five elements can control or be destroyed by another element. Wood controls Earth because trees draw nourishment out of the earth. Earth controls Water because the earth can absorb water and also blocks the flow of water through man-made dykes or naturally occurring phenomena. Water controls Fire because the water is used to put out fires. Fire controls Metal because the heat of a fire can melt metal. And, Metal controls Wood because trees can be chopped down by the metal blade of an ax. Under this philosophy, no element is considered the strongest or weakest. Each element is either controlled by another element or can produce another element. In fact, they are dependent on one another and therefore, are considered equal. In Chinese astrology, during the complete sixty-year cycle, each of the animal signs is combined with the five main elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The element of your zodiac sign will exercise its influence on your life. where is the quotation please?<br />
<br />
===THE FORCES OF YIN / YANG===<br />
<br />
Since ancient times, the Chinese have believed that two major forces, the Yin and the Yang, control the universe. These two forces are the foundation of Chinese philosophy, people, and even Chinese medicine. Generally speaking, the Yin signifies death whereas the Yang indicates life.<br />
<br />
A well-known symbol called “Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) embodies the Yin and the Yang. In the circle, the two forces equilibrate the energy and keep everything balanced. No force is stronger or weaker than the other, when one is at its highest, the other is at its lowest. Together the Yin and the Yang become a whole and thus keep the universe in harmony. where the source is coming please?<br />
<br />
Chinese astrology was invented to achieve the two following goals;<br />
<br />
1.) To predict the future,<br />
<br />
2.) To determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise. <br />
<br />
According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu, and is still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology to predict one's fortune. Chinese Astrology Signs are based on the year that a person is born, with each of the twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs being represented by a particular animal. The twelve Chinese Zodiac Signs are; Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Lamb, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. It is felt in Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Chinese astrology that the animal ruling the year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year. where the source is coming please ?<br />
<br />
Today, the Chinese Zodiac constitutes as a significant part of the traditional Chinese culture. At festive events paper-cut and New-Year pictures of the Chinese Zodiac are popular among the Chinese people. In addition, the Chinese Zodiac is also seen as the symbol of China itself, enforcing its vital role within Chinese culture, although the dragon is the most recognized totem of the Chinese nation. quotation please?<br />
<br />
The Chinese Zodiac plays a part within people's religious beliefs in China. The 12 animals are divided into two categories of Yin and Yang, which are the underlying principles of Chinese philosophy and medicine by ancient Chinese people in accordance with the Five Elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth). A set of fortunetelling methods proclaim that the twelve Chinese horoscope animals decide people's, as a result, the Chinese Zodiac began to play a crucial part in people’s characters, friendships, marriages, careers, health, fortune and other vital parts of their life. Within Chinese astrology, it is considered that when a person comes to their attributed year, which is decided by the year when they were born, they must wear a red belt to pursue good fortune and avoid bad luck. This custom of 'Birth Year' is widespread throughout China.quotation please?<br />
<br />
You might also be surprised to hear that according to some astrologers, your Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
1. Chinese Astrology 中国占星学<br />
<br />
2. Chinese Zodiac 中国十二生肖<br />
<br />
3. Agricultural calendar 农业日历<br />
<br />
4. ”Tai Chi” (the ultimate matter) “太极拳”（终极目标）<br />
<br />
5. The Oriental philosophy 东方哲学<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1-Why was Chinese astrology invented?<br />
<br />
2-How Chinese astrology relates to a person’s divine destiny?<br />
<br />
3-What important role does the Chinese zodiac play in Chinese culture?<br />
<br />
4- What is Chinese astrology based on?<br />
<br />
5-Is Chinese astrology accurate?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. To predict the future, to determine days which are seen as the perfect days in which to initiate a particular project, especially a wedding ceremony or a new business enterprise.<br />
<br />
2. A person's destiny is determined by the position of the major planets, the positions of the Sun, the moon and comets at the person's time of birth, as well as their Zodiac Sign. This comprehensive system of creating one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season and birth hours is known as Zi Wei Dou Shu.<br />
<br />
3. The year of one’s birth has a profound influence on their life. Eastern Chinese people consider that each Animal Sign embodies its Animal's characteristics, which are instilled within the people born that are born within that year.<br />
<br />
4. The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.85-year orbital period of Jupiter.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese Zodiac sign is considered more accurate than your astrological zodiac sign, for a variety of reasons.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Ting, Julian (2014), 占星學量子, createspace, ISBN 978-149373455-9<br />
<br />
何丙郁. (2003). ''Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars'', Routledge, ISBN 0415297591<br />
<br />
Sun, Xiaochun, Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). ''The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society''. Leiden: Brill. 3-4. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.<br />
<br />
"'Almanac' 'lunar' zodiac beginning of spring as the boundary dislocation? — China Network". 16 February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2011.<br />
<br />
Eberhard, Wolfram. (1986). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols''. Routledge and Keegan Paul, London. 93, 105, 309.<br />
<br />
"Five Elements (Wu Xing)". YourChineseAstrology.com<br />
<br />
==Spring Festival Couplets - Cao Runxin 曹润鑫 - 202070080634 - 英语口译 ==<br />
[[File:Chunlian.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Chunlian, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===Spring Festival Couplets===<br />
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. It is the most common and important custom when celebrating Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China.With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).<br />
<br />
Spring Festival Couplets, Chunlian in Chinese, is also known as Spring Couplets or Chinese New Year Couplets. Pasting the Spring Festival Couplets on gateposts or doors is one of the most common and important customs when Chinese People celebrate Chinese New Year. This tradition is widely kept both in modern cities and rural areas of China. With black or golden characters written on red paper, Spring Festival Couplets are composed of a pair of poetry lines vertically pasted on both sides of the front door and a four-character horizontal scroll affixed above the doorframe. Pasting couplets expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.(Li Wenyan 2018, 211).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).<br />
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Spring Couplets originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made of peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty. According to the legend, a rooster perching in a big peach tree will crow at dawn to call all the traveling ghosts back. In front of the entrance of the dark world, there are two guards named Shentu and Yulei. If the ghosts harm any people at night, the guards will kill them.People believed that peach trees can scare and subdue evil things, so they hung peach boards in front of the doors with the guards’ names written or inscribed on them. During the Song Dynasty, the wood board was replaced by paper, and people focused more on bright wishes for the future. The custom became popular in Ming Dynasty. When the Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang traveled for inspection, he found those pairs of scrolls interesting. In order to advocate and promote this cultural activity, he ordered all household to paste the scrolls during the Chinese New Year. This tradition continues today.(Qian Yu, Liu Tao 2018, 75).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).<br />
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The upper scroll and the lower scroll have parallel structures and antithetical meanings. The two lines should have an equal number of characters, while their meaning must be related and antithetical. There must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two lines. The tone pattern is emphasized but rhythm is not important. The horizontal scroll is a four-character phrase, which sums up the two lines’ meaning. When you read a spring festival couplets, first,look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left.(Zhang Yanchen 2020, 34).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also traditions for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China.In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).<br />
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There are rules not only for pasting the couplets, but also for how to remove them, and these traditions vary in different areas of China. In remote or rural areas, people will not remove the old scrolls until the next New Year. Although they are damaged by wind and rain, they will still keep them up until replaced the following year. In modern cities, if the couplets are ruined or damaged, people usually tear them off after the Lantern Festival. Some will just throw them away, while others will burn them. According to legend, Spring Couplets are gods. After burning, the god can go back to heaven, which will bring good luck to the family.(Han Daqiang 2014, 83).--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 10:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Zhang Yanchen 张砚宸. (2020). 中国春联的文化内涵与艺术特色探微 [The exploration of the cultural connotations and artistic features of Chinese Spring Couplets]. ''汉字文化'' Chinese Character Culture (19) 34-35.<br />
*Li Wenyan 李文艳. (2018). 春联的演变历程及民俗价值 [The evolution and folk value of Spring Festival Couplets]. ''艺术品鉴'' Art Appreciation (24) 211-212.<br />
*Qian Yu, Liu Tao 钱钰，刘涛. (2018). 从桃符到春联的演进——基于祝由文化兴衰的视角 [The Evolution from Taofu to Spring Couplets - A perspective based on the rise and fall of Zhuyu Culture]. ''民间文化论坛'' Folk Culture Forum (01) 75-83.<br />
*Han Daqiang 韩大强. (2014). 论春节仪式中符号元素的文化意蕴——以春联、门神为例 [On the cultural implications of symbolic elements in Chinese New Year Rituals - Taking Spring Couplets and Door Gods as examples]. ''信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Xinyang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (05) 83-87.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions ===<br />
Spring Festival Couplets, Spring Couplets, Chinese New Year Couplets, New Year Scroll 春联 <br />
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Paste 贴<br />
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Horizontal scroll 横联<br />
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Upper scroll 上联<br />
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Lower scroll 下联<br />
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===Questions ===<br />
1.What’s the purpose of pasting Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
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2.What’s the historical origin of Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
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3.How to read the Spring Festival Couplets?<br />
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4.How to do with the Old Couplets?<br />
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===Answers ===<br />
1.To expresses people’s delight in the festival and wishes for a better life in the coming year.<br />
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2.It originated from Taofu, an inscription on boards made from peach trees in the Zhou Dynasty.<br />
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3.First, look at the horizontal scroll. If the four characters are written from left to right, the upper scroll will be on the left and the lower scroll on the right. If the characters of the horizontal scroll are reversed, the two side scrolls should be read from right to left. <br />
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4.Remove the old scrolls until the next New Year or tear them off after the Lantern Festival.<br />
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==Instruments, Guzheng - Chen Han 陈涵 - 202070080580 - MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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[[File:Guzheng.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Guzheng in the shop, photo by Christopher Hsia. Click[https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Even_more_Guzhengs_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%8F)_cropped.jpg#mw-jump-to-license]for original source.]]<br />
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===Guzheng===<br />
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''Guzheng'' or ''Zheng'' is one of the oldest traditional ethnic musical instruments in China. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments. As early as 2500 years ago, ''zheng'' has become an important instrument and was widespread at that time. Due to the long history, its primitive simplicity and elegant sound, people are used to calling it ''guzheng'' (''gu'' refers to “ancient”). It has beautiful timbre, broad ranges, rich performance skills and strong expressive power, so it is deeply loved by Chinese. (Wang Xiaohong & Gu Haijun 2019, 69)<br />
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There are varied accounts for how the ''zheng'' came to be. The first legend says the history of ''guzheng'' can date back to the Warring States Period (Duan Lili 2006, 57). The oldest specimen yet discovered held 13 strings. ''Zheng'' was regarded as a weapon at that time which was used vertically to beat enemies. There was also an old saying that “the ''zheng'' makes a pleasant sound when placed horizontally and becomes a soldier when placed vertically”. Later, strings were added to it, and when plucked, it was found to be pleasing to the ears, so it developed into an instrument. As time went by, the weapons became lighter and lighter, and the ''zheng'', a large and heavy weapon, was abandoned. The second legend says the early form of the''zheng'' is said to have been invented by Meng Tian, a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). But according to the biographies of Meng Tian in ''Historical Records'', there is no record of his invention of the ''zheng''. The third legend says the ''guzheng'' came about largely influenced by the ''se'' which was recorded by Zhao Lin in ''Records on Words''. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part. (Jin Jianmin 1988, 51)<br />
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The modern-day ''guzheng'' usually has 21 strings and movable bridges and is 163 centimeters long. It should not be confused with the ''guqin'', another ancient Chinese zither with 7 strings played without movable bridges. The strings were originally made of silk. By the 20th century, most players used metal strings. Since the mid-20th century, steel strings wound with nylon are common to be seen. The body of the ''guzheng'' is approximately rectangular, with a slight protrusion in the middle of the faceplate. The head and tail of the ''guzheng'' are anterior mountain and posterior mountain respectively. The two mountains are connected by 21 strings which are supported by 21 movable bridges, also known as ''Yan Zhu'' which are moved to change the timbres. The strings at the anterior side are wound around the string pegs in the turning box. And the ''guzheng'' was usually placed on the zither feet. The timbre of the ''guzheng'' is determined by the quality of the wood. Since the tension of paulownia is better, the body of the ''guzheng'' are mostly made of paulownia. The head, tail and other parts of the ''guzheng'' are generally made of mahogany, and some patterns are decorated on the head and the tail. (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83)<br />
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[[File:Fingerpicks.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Using fingerpicks to play the guzheng. Image from Baidu. Click[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=古筝&step_word=&hs=0&pn=27&spn=0&di=9900&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3246661627%2C3658564396&os=3335747328%2C3552694810&simid=0%2C0&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1718&fr=&fmq=1607348039297_R&fm=result&ic=&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=http%3A%2F%2Fi2.hdslb.com%2Fbfs%2Farchive%2F6a84e824b3507f96cd3f55df9c2d38744bb81962.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Ff_z%26e3Bojtk5_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fojtk5AzdH3F%25Ec%25la%25bC%25El%25b8%25ln%25Em%25AE%25bA%25El%25ba%25l9%25Ec%25bF%25A9%25E0%25AD%25lD%3Fiwfet1j5%3D8%26fjw6viet1j5%3D8&gsm=1c&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]for original source.]]<br />
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The fingerpicks, called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia'', used by ''guzheng'' performers are often made from materials such as plastic, resin, tortoiseshell, or ivory on one or both hands. The ''guzheng'' is plucked by the fingers with or without these fingerpicks. Most modern players use fingerpicks attached to up to four fingers on each hand. In ancient times, picks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade. There are many techniques used to strike notes. Generally speaking, performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. There are also many fingering methods on playing the ''guzheng'', such as ''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo''. These techniques of playing the ''guzheng'' can create sounds that evoke a sense of a cascading waterfall, thunder and even the landscape. Using both hands to play on the right side of the strings is a common playing skill at the present. ''Do'', ''Re'', ''Mi'', ''So'' and ''La'' are the pentatonic scale of the ''guzheng'', but ''Fa'' and ''Si'' are produced by pressing the stings to the left of the bridges. (Gao Yiwei 2020, 39)<br />
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Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, ''guzheng'' gradually spread across the country from the northwest China, and was merged with the local opera, rap and folk music, and formed a variety of genres with strong local style . The styles or schools of the ''guzheng'' can be traditionally divided into the Northern school and the Southern school. The Northern style is associated with Henan Province, Shaanxi Province and Shandong Province while the Southern style includes the Chaozhou, Hakka and Fujian regional schools. With the development of the times, several new schools are derived on the basis of the Northern and Southern schools, namely the four major schools of “Taiwan, Shandong, Henan and Zhejiang” (Cao Yue 2002, 84). The differences among the contemporary schools are quite small and every style has its own characteristics of ''zheng'' music and performance methods. Some famous pieces such as ''High Mountains and Running Water'' (''Gao Shan Liu Shui''), ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' (''Han Gong Qiu Yue'') are both from the Shandong school. In the southern school, representatives include ''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' (''Han Ya Xi Shui''), and ''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' belongs to the Chaozhou school (Cao Yue 2002, 84).<br />
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In the 20th century, outstanding ''guzheng'' performers such as Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu and Luo Jiuxiang laid a solid foundation for the development of ''guzheng'' (Liu Xueqi 2019, 83). Notable Chinese ''guzheng'' players in the 21th century include Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang and so on. In addition to playing traditional ''guzheng'' music, many performers today have made innovations in ''guzheng'' performance. Take Wang Zhongshan as an example, he participated in a TV show — ''National Music Ceremony'', which is a large-scale original Chinese classical music competition show. In a performance, Wang merged the music in ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' with the song in ''Game of Thrones'' by playing the ''guzheng'', making a combination of Eastern and Western music and creating a wonderful listening experience for audience. (Tong Guiying 2019, 197)<br />
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From ancient times to the present, the charm of the ''guzheng'' has never diminished. The combination of cultural heritage and modern techniques has made this national musical instrument more radiant.<br />
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===References===<br />
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*Cao Yue 曹月. (2019). 古筝的主要流派与风格特征 [The main schools and styles of the guzheng]. ''东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Southeast University (Philosophy and Social Science) (04) 84-87.<br />
*Duan Lili 段丽丽. (2006). 古筝的起源与发展 [The origin and development of the guzheng]. ''民族音乐'' Folk Music (01) 57-58.<br />
*Gao Yiwei 高祎蔚. (2020). 浅谈古筝演奏中音色的体现及把握 [The embodiment and grasp of timbre in guzheng performance]. ''中国文艺家'' Chinese literary artists (05) 39+165. <br />
*Jin Jianmin 金建民. (1988). 古筝起源之谜 [The mystery of the origin of the guzheng]. ''中国音乐'' Chinese Music (01) 51.<br />
*Liu Xueqi 刘雪琦. (2019). 浅谈古筝的起源与发展历程 [The origin and development history of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (14) 83.<br />
*Tong Guiying 佟桂影. (2017). 王中山古筝作品的艺术特征研究 [Research on the artistic characteristics of Wang Zhongshan's guzheng performances]. ''才智'' Talents (24) 197-198.<br />
*Wang Xiaohong, Gu Haijun 王晓红, 顾海珺. (2019). 浅谈古筝传承与发展 [The development of the guzheng]. ''戏剧之家'' Drama House (23) 69.<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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*Meng Tian 蒙恬 <br />
*Zhao Lin 赵璘<br />
*''Records on Words'' 《因话录》<br />
*anterior mountain 前岳山 <br />
*posterior mountain 后岳山<br />
*''Yan Zhu'' 雁柱 <br />
*string pegs 弦钉<br />
*turning box 调音盒 <br />
*zither feet 琴足<br />
*paulownia 桐木 <br />
*mahogany 红木<br />
*''Dai Mao'' 玳瑁<br />
*''Yi Jia'' 义甲<br />
*''gou'', ''tuo'', ''pi'', ''tiao'' and ''mo'' 勾、托、劈、挑、抹<br />
*''High Mountains and Running Water'' 《高山流水》<br />
*''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' 《汉宫秋月》<br />
*''Jackdaw Playing in the Water'' 《寒鸦戏水》<br />
*''The Tune of Liu Qing Niang'' 《柳青娘》<br />
*Wang Xunzhi, Cao Zheng, Cao Dongfu, Luo Jiuxiang 王巽之、曹正、曹东扶、罗九香<br />
*Wang Zhongshan, Yuan Sha, Zhou Wang 王中山、袁莎、周望<br />
*''National Music Ceremony'' 《国乐大典》<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1. What kind of musical instrument does the ''guzheng'' belong to?<br />
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2. Why the ''guzheng'' is deeply loved by Chinese? <br />
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3. Who is Meng Tian? <br />
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4. According to the legend, how did the ''se'' develop into the ''zheng''?<br />
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5. How many strings does the ''guzheng'' have? How long is the guzheng?<br />
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6. What is the function of movable bridges?<br />
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7. What are used by ''guzheng'' performers to play the instrument? And What are they also called? <br />
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8. In ancient times, what materials were the fingerpicks made of?<br />
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9. Generally speaking, how does the players strike notes? <br />
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10. What styles can ''guzheng'' be divided into?<br />
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11. Which school does ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belong to? <br />
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12. Do you know any other ''guzheng'' music? Please list some pieces.<br />
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===Answers===<br />
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1. It belongs to plucked stringed instruments.<br />
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2. It has beautiful timbre, broad range, rich performance skills and strong expressive power. <br />
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3. He is a general of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), and a legend says the early form of the ''zheng'' is said to have been invented by him.<br />
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4. When two people fought over a 25-string ''se'', they broke it in half, one person receiving a 12-string part and the other the 13-string part. <br />
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5. It usually has 21 strings and is 163 centimeters long. <br />
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6. They are moved to change the timbres.<br />
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7. ''Guzheng'' performers use fingerpicks to play the instrument. They are also called ''Dai Mao'' or ''Yi Jia''.<br />
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8. In ancient times, fingerpicks were made of materials such as bamboo, bone, animal teeth, or even jade.<br />
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9. Performers traditionally use the thumb, index finger, middle finger and ring finger of the right hand to pluck notes and the left hand to add ornamentation such as pitch slides and vibrato by pressing the strings on the left side of the bridges. <br />
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10. The Northern school and the Southern school.<br />
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11. ''The Autumn Moon in the Han Palace'' belongs to the Shandong school.<br />
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12. ''Harvest Celebration'' (''Qing Feng Nian'' 《庆丰年》), ''Fighting the Typhoon'' (''Zhan Tai Feng'' 《战台风》) and ''Song of the Fishermen'' (''Yu Zhou Chang Wan'' 《渔舟唱晚》).<br />
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--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Facial Make-up - Chen Jingjing 陈静静 - 202070080581 - 英语笔译==<br />
===Facial makeup===<br />
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Facial makeup, a sort of makeup art used in stage performance, is painted on the face of traditional opera singers in China and varies when it come to different types of role. The character roles in Beijing opera are divided into four main types according to the sex, age, social status and profession of the character. Sheng refers to male roles and is divided into laosheng (middle-aged or old men), xiaosheng (young men) and wusheng ( men with martial skills). Dan refers to female roles and is also subdivided into various types. Qingyi is a woman with a strict moral code; and laodan is an elderly woman. Jing refers to the roles with painted faces. They are usually warriors, statesmen or even demons. Chou, clown, is a comic character and can be recognized at first sight for his special make-up.(Wang Hai 2018, 62) <br />
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The facial makeup of “sheng” and “dan” is quite simple with a thin layer of powder, called “plain face” while that of “jing” and “chou” is relatively complicated, and the former, in particular, is applied with heavy color and complicated patterns, thus gaining the name of “painted face”. In Beijing Opera, facial make-up, which is applied to Jing roles only, shows the character’s age and personality by using different colors. “Chou” is commonly called the clown as they are accustomed to wiping a patch of white powder on the nose.(Wang Hai 2018, 62) <br />
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People hold different views when speaking of the origin of the facial makeup. It is said facial makeup was closely related to a kind of dance, called Damian, which appeared in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and thrived in the Tang Dynasty. It was performed by a single man aiming to extol King Lanling Gao Changgong’s outstanding military service and merits. He was courageous and good-looking and was bound to win every time he worn a mask that seemed frightening in the battlefield. As for the facial makeup used in opera, it is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage.(Cao Juan 2019, 58)<br />
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The legendary drama played a dominant role in Ming Dynasty, rich in content and fine in role division. Both jing and chou wear their own special facial makeup. The basic color is mostly designed based on the description in the drama literature or the singers’ personal imagination. For instance, facial makeup of Guanyu is red and that of Baozhen is black. Their brow and eyes are exaggerated in some way. The pattern ratio has changed as well. Unlike the Ming Dyansty, there are both simple and sophisticated facial makeups with the same basic color. In the Mid-Qing Dynasty, as the local drama arose, facial makeup varied greatly in different places and possessed distinct local features and folk characteristics. More than 300 kinds of dramas sprung up after the 18th century. Therefore, the drama characters mount and their division is much more finer. More colors like blue, green, yellow, grey and orange are added in jing.(He Weiwei 2015, 138)<br />
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Red<br />
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Red facial makeup is symbolic of loyalty, upright and integrity like the characters Guan Yu and Wu Han.<br />
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Black<br />
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Black facial makeup gives people the impression that the actor is serious,courageous and wise like Bao Zheng, a impartial official. It also stands for mighty force and boldness like Zhang Fei in drama the Three Kingdoms and Li Kuai in drama Water Margin of the Marsh.<br />
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White<br />
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White facial makeup bears a derogatory sense, indicating a deceitful and suspicious nature like Cao Cao in drama the Three Kingdoms and Yan Song, Qin Hui.<br />
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Blue<br />
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Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly like Ma Wu and Dou Erdun.<br />
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Purple<br />
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Purple facial makeup shows more sedate and righteous like Xu Yanzhao and Zhuan Zhu.<br />
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Golden<br />
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Golden facial makeup symbolizes dignity and power fitting roles like supernatural being such as Tathagata (Sakyamuni, the creator of Buddhism) and Erlang Shen (a Chinese God with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead).<br />
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The features of facial makeup are mainly as follows:<br />
First, it is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness.Second, it is closely related to the character’s personality.Thirdly, its pattern is stylized. Chinese Peking opera makeup is favored by many opera enthusiasts and is widely known both at home and abroad, having been regarded as one of the mark of traditional Chinese culture.<br />
It is derived from the stage and could be seen on some large buildings, packages of some commercials, various porcelains and people’s clothes in different styles. It is far beyond the scope of stage use, showing its status in people’s heart and strong vitality. Out of curiosity and affection for facial makeup in Chinese opera, a great many foreign friends and Chinese of insight start to explore the mystery of it.(Cao Juan, 2019, 61)<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
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painted face 花脸<br />
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clown 丑角<br />
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Sheng 生<br />
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Dan 旦<br />
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Jing 净<br />
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Chou 丑<br />
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Qingyi 青衣<br />
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xiaosheng 小生<br />
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laosheng 老生<br />
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wusheng 武生<br />
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Gao Changgong 高长恭<br />
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legend，romance 传奇剧<br />
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Erlang Shen, Erlang 二郎神<br />
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Tathagata, Buddha 如来佛<br />
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Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br />
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Water Margin of the Marsh 水浒传<br />
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===Questions===<br />
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1.How many types are character roles divided into in Beijing opera?<br />
<br />
2.What are the differences bbetween Sheng and Dan?<br />
<br />
3.What are the special features of Chou?<br />
<br />
4.What is the function of facial mask in Beijing opera?<br />
<br />
5.What are the main features of facial makeup?<br />
<br />
6.What are the characteristics of characters wearing blue facial makeup?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Four types:Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou.<br />
<br />
2.Sheng refers to male roles while Dan refers to female roles.<br />
<br />
3.A patch of white powder is wiped on their nose.<br />
<br />
4.It is used to highlight the roles’ character, appearance as well as status, achieving a colorful and fantastic stage. <br />
<br />
5.It is a contradictory unit of beauty and ugliness and is closely related to the character’s personality and its pattern is stylized.<br />
<br />
6.Characters wearing blue facial makeup tend to be upright ,outspoken ,obstinate and even unruly<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
He Weiwei 何伟伟.(2015).浅谈京剧脸谱的色彩研究[Study on the colors of the facial makeup in Beijing opera].艺术科技 Art and Technology ,28(04):138-139.<br />
<br />
Cao Juan 曹娟.(2019).中国京剧脸谱之考究[Study on Beijing opera facial makeup].中国京剧,(01):58-61.<br />
<br />
Wang Hai 王海.(2018).京剧脸谱程式化特征与传统文化元素[Features of Beijing opera facial makeup and the traditional elements it related to].中国京剧 Chinese Peking Opera,(08):62-65.<br />
<br />
==Literature, Science Fiction, and Fantasy - Dashkin, Gennadii - Student No.201911080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
=== Three Worldwide Famous Chinese Novelists of Modern Science Fiction and Fantasy===<br />
<br />
<br />
Nowadays, modern literature is one of the most interesting and gorgeous sides of worldwide cultural processes. It heals soul and heart and can change everything to its best. However, it can be difficult sometimes to talk about literature without dividing it into genres. We can guess that the modern generation in the whole world prefers to read something about the future. Something, that can help to understand what will be next. And that is why one of the most popular genres are with no doubt - Science Fiction and Fantasy. So, let's see who are the most popular Chinese sci-fi and fantasy authors who broaden our mental horizons.<br />
<br />
====1.Liu Cixin（刘慈欣）====<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Cixin was born in 1963 in Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, 400 kilometers from Beijing. Other famous natives of the area were Gaozu, the founder of the Tang Imperial Dynasty, and Jia Zhangke, the chief filmmaker of modern China. The parents of the future writer worked in a mine in Shanxi, and his first conscious years fell on the heyday of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). (Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
[[File: 21.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Cixin Liu. ILLUSTRATION: ZACHARY BAKO FOR THE WALL STREET JOURNAL. Click [https://www.zacharybako.com/]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Liu received his technical education from North China University of Water and Electricity. After graduation, he worked as a computer engineer at a power plant in his native Yangquan. Now Liu Qixin is combining his studies of literature with the post of chief engineer of the China Energy Investment Corporation at the Nianziguan Power Plant. Liu Cixin started writing relatively late. At 26, he wrote China in 2185, but the book never saw the light of the day. Mostly this was due to the consequences of the Cultural Revolution - in the late 80s, almost no science fiction literature was published in China. Later, when the opportunity arose to publish the novel, the writer himself re-read it, considered it second-rate, badly written, and naive, and decided that he did not deserve publication. However, Liu Cixin did not give up and in 1999 he released another novel, written by him at a young age, but significantly modified and edited for publication. This is how Liu Cixin's first big book appeared - the novel "Supernova Era". Before that, some of his stories were published in magazines, but the writer's name became really noticeable after the publication of this book. In it, as a result of the radiation of a supernova, all people over 30 are threatened with death within a year. Since then, the life of humanity has changed dramatically, and although the doomed older generation made heroic efforts to make the existence of young people better, a year later the world is plunging into an abyss of chaos and violence. (Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,352)<br />
<br />
Liu's first books were warmly received in China, but nevertheless, the real success came to the author only in 2006, when he published the first part of his trilogy "Memory of the Earth's Past" - the novel "The Problem of Three Bodies" in the Chinese journal Science Fiction World. This book first made the writer a real star in his homeland, and 7 years later, when the Chinese-American science fiction writer Ken Liu translated it into English, and all over the world. The novel has become so popular that the entire trilogy is often referred to as "The Three-Body Problem," although this is not formally true.In 2006, the book won the Galaxy Award, the main Chinese literary science fiction award, and after being translated into English, it was nominated for all three major world awards: Hugo, Locus, and Nebula. The novel only won the Hugo Award, but in 2017 the third part of the Eternal Life of Death trilogy took over Locus. The novel gain such a great popularity that famous people like Barack Obama and Marc Zuckerberg recommended it to every single person in order to understand the perhaps future and how to avoid the negative contact with aliens.(Kakutani, Obama’s Secret to Surviving the White House Years:Books 2017, 1)<br />
<br />
Liu Cixin is definitely a unique writer, with his own style, philosophy, and special vision of science fiction. So far, only three of his novels have been published outside of China, but he has already won such recognition that Barack Obama and Mark Zuckerberg recommend reading the Cixin trilogy. But the main thing that Liu Cixin has already managed to prove with his books is that science fiction literature is capable of giving generous shoots not only on the basis of European culture. Liu Cixin is the first person outside of the Western world to achieve resounding success in science fiction. And, perhaps, his trilogy is just the beginning of a new global phenomenon. After all, it's not for nothing that many experts have been saying for several years that the future belongs to China. It is very likely that this phrase refers not only to politics and economics but also to science fiction literature.Also Liu Cixin is a big fan of reading books and he sometimes recommend not only to read classical sci-fi novels but also modern authors like Chen Qiufan, Derek Kunsken and so on.(Liu Cixin, Supernova Era 2019,15)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆） ====<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:22.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Chen Qiufan photographed in Beijing by Gilles Sabrié. Click [https://www.gsabrie.com/] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Today this author is called by others the “Chinese William Gibson”. He can also be called one of the leaders of Chinese science-fiction and a cyberpunk novelist. He was born in China in 1981 in a seaside province in southeastern China called Guangdong, which borders Hong Kong and Macau. To say more accurately he grew up a few miles from Guiyu, the largest waste dump. Mountains of scrap electronics are shipped there every year from all over the world. Thousands of workers sort through the garbage in search of something that is suitable for recycling. This topic became the central topic in a novel called “Waste Tide”.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,3)<br />
<br />
Also, by the early 2000s, Chen Qiufang had become a big fan of virtual chats and the Internet. He saw great potential in the Internet and technologies in general, an opportunity to change the world for the better. After graduation, Chen worked with Google, Baidu, and co-founded Noitom, a virtual reality startup in Beijing. As science fiction began to gain popularity in China and receive support from the government, Qiufan turned to full-fledged novels.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,5)<br />
<br />
His debut book was ''The Empty Wave'', "combining realism and allegory to represent the hybridity of humans and machines." Chen Qiufan's novels and stories won three Galaxy Awards and twelve Chinese Nebula Awards. His works have been translated into German, French, Finnish, Korean, Czech, Italian, Japanese, Polish, and Russian. His book ''Waste Tide'' became one of the most discussed books around the world and got universal acclaim from critics and usual readers. The fantastic mix of dark future with reality components made this book a guidebook for those who are worried about ecological problems and the darkest sides of human progress.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide, 2019,8)<br />
<br />
Chen Qiufan is a constant consumer of entertainment and literature. He watches at least 100 new films and reads at least 50 books a year. He was recently recruited into the development of a television series called Eros, which will launch in 2019-2020. He compares it to Netflix's dystopian show Black Mirror. Chen travels frequently between Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong for various projects and literary festivals.(Chen Qiufan,Waste Tide,2019,17)<br />
<br />
====3.Rebecca F. Kuang (匡灵秀)====<br />
<br />
[[File:23.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Rebecca F. Kuang. Click [https://www.instagram.com/kuangrf/?hl=ru] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
When Rebecca was four years old, her family emigrated to the United States from Guangzhou, China. Kuang's father grew up in Leiyang, in Hunan province, and his mother in Hainan Island.Quang grew up in Dallas, Texas, and later went to Georgetown University in large part because of the college's discussion team. Kuang began writing The Opium War when she worked as a debate trainer in China during a break from her studies. Rebecca always liked writing, but she was afraid that an education related to literature might not give her a profession in demand. But during the direct work on the book, she completed several literary courses. As a result, her first novel was published when she was only 22 years old.Rebecca graduated from the university in June 2018. She further attended Magdalene College, Cambridge University as a recipient of the 2018 Marshall Fellowship, where she earned her Master of Philosophy in Sinology. She is currently pursuing a Master's Degree in Contemporary Sinology from Oxford University.(Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018,4)<br />
Her debut novel, The Opium War, is a war fantasy setting inspired by the history and culture of China. The Opium War is a dark fantasy genre. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century. The conflict refers to the Second Sino-Japanese War, but the scenery is inspired by the Song Dynasty. The novel accurately recreates the social, mythological, and philosophical realities of China of the chosen era.(Rebecca F.Kuang, The Poppy War,2018,7)<br />
<br />
The last news about R.F.Kuang is that she wrote a short tale for an anthology of Star Wars saga, which was published in November. She wrote about this news in her Twitter.(Twitter 2020)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
1. Science fiction - 科幻<br />
<br />
2. Fantasy - 奇幻<br />
<br />
3. Horizon - 地平线<br />
<br />
4. Broad - 拓宽<br />
<br />
5. Hybrid - 杂种<br />
<br />
6. The plot - 情节<br />
<br />
7. Garbage - 垃圾堆<br />
<br />
8. Heyday - 壮年<br />
<br />
9. Supernova - 超新星<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Alexandra Alter, How Chinese Sci-Fi Conquered America, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/magazine/ken-liu-three-body-problem-chinese-science-fiction.html<br />
<br />
*Chen Qiufan 陈楸帆. (2019). Waste Tide 荒潮. Tor Books; Translation edition. Translated by Ken Liu - 342 pp.<br />
<br />
*Liu Cixin 刘慈欣. (2019). Supernova Era 超新星纪元. Tor Books; First Edition. Translated by Joel Martinsen - 352 pp.<br />
<br />
*Rebecca F.Kuang 匡灵秀. (2018). The Poppy War 罂粟战争. Harper Voyager - 530 pp.<br />
<br />
*Michiko Kakutani, Obama’s Secret to Surviving the White House Years: Books. The New York Times, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/16/books/obamas-secret-to-surviving-the-white-house-years-books.html<br />
<br />
*Twitter.https://twitter.com/kuangrf<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the name of the most important tilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?<br />
<br />
2. What is the most popular trilogy of books written by Liu Cixin?<br />
<br />
3. Who is called Chinese William Gibson?<br />
<br />
4. What is Rebecca Quang's Opium War plot based on?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. The Remembrance of Earth's Past<br />
<br />
2. Memory of the Earth's Past<br />
<br />
3. Chen Qiufan (陈楸帆）<br />
<br />
4. The plot is largely based on the history of China in the middle of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
==Stilts - Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 202070080582 英语笔译==<br />
[[File:stilts.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Stilts presentation during the Miliangtun Stilt Festival, image from Baike. Click [http://img3.imgtn.bdimg.com/it/u=2060438651,2837589998&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage — Miliangtun Village Stilts===<br />
<br />
<center>Chen Yongxiang 陈永相 202070080582 英语笔译</center><br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
Stilt is one of the folk dances of the Han nationality in our country, which is called "Stilt Yangko" in some places. Stilt-walkers tie their feet onto the long stilts with various length, the shortest being two feet long, and the longest reaching over five feet. Normally, stilt-walkers are taller than ordinary people. They dress themselves into different historical or mythological figures, walking and dancing on fairs and movable stages, which is convenient for watching far and near. (Huo Linmo, 2018)<br />
<br />
As a traditional folk dance in Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts originates from "Tongle Gaojiaohui"(同乐高脚会）founded in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty and bestowed by Emperor Qianlong. According to the older generation in the village, Miliangtun Village Stilts was first founded by several villagers led by Uncle Ma, who lived in Miliangtun Village and worked in Beijing over 250 years ago. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
Miliangtun Village Stilts is not only time-honored, but also mysterious and legendary. It still retains the traditions in performance techniques, characters, musical accompaniment, etiquette, and stilts production technology, which is an excellent performing art that is spread among the folks. In 2006, it was listed as a Beijing-level intangible cultural heritage. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The team of Miliangtun Village Stilts has over forty people and 13 roles all played by men. The roles are Tuotou, Laozuozi, young boy, young master, Mr. Plaster, Choupo, fisherman, Yupo, wood-cutter, handsome and ugly drum-players, handsome and ugly gong-players. Tuotou, fisherman and wood-cutter are righteous and decent images, while zany figures represent the negative images, like Choupo, young boy and Laozuozi who are responsible for enlivening the atmosphere and entertaining the audience. Such a stark contrast is quite ironic in these funny characters. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The only serious character among the 13 roles is Tuotou. Because he is a general who can be easily recognized upon his appearance. Squatting and carrying swords are his signature tricks. Others like the young boy, a little kid who amuses everyone. Mr. Plaster is responsible for warming up. He is outstanding because he can play and amuse with others, like Yupo or Laozuozi. Fisherman is just a workingman. He is not funny. He plays the trick of going fishing because that's his character setting. Wood-cutter is also a workingman who can play other tricks besides squatting. Yupo is the young lady in the past, and Laozuozi is the housewife. Wood-cutter and Mr. Plaster can play and amuse with them. The handsome and ugly drum-players and gong-players are quite important in the backfield when the show begins. They play drums and gongs to accompany the performance and amuse the audience. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The show of Kylin Songzi (麒麟送子), which indicates good luck and peace, marks the end of the whole performance. Tuotou lies down flat, the young boy riding on his waist like a living lion. Mr. Plaster and young master raise their waists with Yupo dancing Yangko behind. Fisherman uses his ribbon to drag Tuotou who holds the ribbon in his mouth. When it's done, the show is over. That's the whole performance. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
As a renowned fair, Miliangtun Village Stilts is characterized by risky tricks, various skills and great difficulty. There are stunning tricks such as Yasha Searches the Sea, Su Qin Carries Swords, squatting, bouncing, hugging, somersault, and scorpion tail pendulum. Stilts performances focus on amusement, Tuotou being the opening, other roles flatter him with various and difficult tricks, constituting the grand show. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
The length of Miliangtun Village Stilts, 1.6 meters, is quite rare in the stilt fairs of the country. Stilt-walkers control the balance with their waists. They must bend their knees slightly and keep moving when walking on stilts. The upper body and their feet must be coordinated, and swing from side to side to ensure the balance when stepping on the wooden stilts. The movement of the lower body leads the upper body to shake and shrug. The stilts are lifted lightly but stepped hardly, with the force on the knees, forming into a style of combining the tricks of twisting, swinging and amusing. (Xingxing, 2019)<br />
<br />
There is strict inheritance relationship and etiquette in the stilt fair, which will set up inheritors, presidents, team leaders, and team members. As the distinctive folklore in Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing, Miliangtun Village Stilts stands out among the stilt fairs and enjoys great popularity from peers and the public. It is visually stunning, technically accomplished and naturally funny, which is divided into lead in, head stilts command, and separation performance, forming into a fixed set of performance routines after long-term drills since the establishment. Miliangtun Village Stilts has become an indispensable part of local festivals and celebrations with its lively atmosphere and superb skills and adds value to the cultural life of the folks. (Sun Miao, 2018)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
<br />
Miliangtun (village name) 米粮屯<br />
<br />
stilts 高跷<br />
<br />
intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产<br />
<br />
folk dance 民间舞蹈<br />
<br />
Toutou 陀头<br />
<br />
Laozuozi 老坐子 <br />
<br />
young boy 小二哥<br />
<br />
young master 公子<br />
<br />
Mr.Plaster 药先生<br />
<br />
Choupo 丑婆<br />
<br />
fisherman渔翁<br />
<br />
Yupo 渔婆 <br />
<br />
wood-cutter 柴翁<br />
<br />
handsome and ugly drum-players 俊鼓和丑鼓<br />
<br />
handsome and ugly gong-players 俊锣和丑锣<br />
<br />
====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. Where does Miliangtun Village Stilts originate?<br />
<br />
2. How many years of history does Miliangtun Village Stilts have?<br />
<br />
3. How many roles in Miliangtun Village Stilts?<br />
<br />
4. When was Miliangtun Village Stilts listed as the intangible cultural heritage?<br />
<br />
5. How long is the shortest and the longest stilts?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. Wangzuo Town, Fengtai District, Beijing.<br />
<br />
2. More than 250 years.<br />
<br />
3. 13.<br />
<br />
4. In 2006.<br />
<br />
5. The shortest stilt is two feet long, and the longest reaches over five feet.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Huo Linmo 霍淋漠. (2018). ''高碑店市河头村高跷会考察与研究'' [Investigation and research on stilts fair in Hetou Village, Gaobeidian City]. Hebe: Hebei University 河北大学.<br />
<br />
Sun Miao 孙淼. (2018). "一跷多艺": 胜芳高跷会的舞体表征与比较研究 ["Multi-skills with one stilt": A comparative study of the dance style of Shengfang stilt fair]. ''长江丛刊'' [Yangtze River Series] (24)18.<br />
<br />
Xingxing 邢星. (2019). 米粮屯高跷 [Miliangtun Village Stilts]. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%B1%B3%E7%B2%AE%E5%B1%AF%E9%AB%98%E8%B7%B7%E4%BC%9A/12762743?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
非物质文化遗产米粮屯高跷 [Intangible cultural heritage Miliangtun Village Stilts] (2019). https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1643344511003907548&wfr=spider&for=pc<br />
<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Lion Dancing - Ding Daifeng 丁代凤 202070080583 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Lion dancing is a traditional folk art with a history of about 2000 years, which is often performed in big events and festivals. Nowadays, it is generally believed that lion is the king of beasts and is a symbol of good fortune. However, there was no lion in ancient China. According to historical records, lions were introduced to China through the Silk Road from the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,77)<br />
<br />
When lions were first introduced into China, their ferocious images were unacceptable. Later, due to the spread of Buddhism, the image of lions changed fundamentally in people's minds. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.(Zhang Yanqing 2003,78) In Europe, the image of lion has not been deified, but is still the king of beasts, symbolizing bravery, strength and supreme power. Many nobles use lion as a symbol.<br />
<br />
There are a number of stories about the origin of lion dance. Here is one of the sayings. During the Ming Dynasty, it was said that a monster always damaged crops in Guangdong province at the end of the year. Local people called it "Nian". In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.(Zhang Guobin 2019,157)<br />
<br />
In lion dance, lions are made of colorful cloth strips, and each lion is usually performed by two people, one handling the head and the other moving the body and tail. Under the music of gongs and drums, performers dress up as lions and make various forms of lion movements. The lion dance is an art which combines martial arts, dance and music together. Originating in the Han Dynasty, lion dance has prevailed among Chinese people and spread throughout all over China since the Tang Dynasty. There are mainly two kinds of lion dance in China: northern lion dancing and southern lion dancing.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
===Northern lion dancing===<br />
<br />
The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion. The lion's head is relatively simple, with golden hair all over its body. The pants and shoes of lion dancers are covered with fur, and even the pants and shoes of performers are the same color as the legs of real lions, so they can perform more vividly. Little lion dance is performed by one person, and the big lion dance is performed by two people.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76) <br />
<br />
Northern lions usually appear in pairs. The lions with red knots on their heads are males and those with green knots are females. Guided by the man who holds the colorful silk ball, lion dancers perform all kinds of lion’s movements. Apart from the usual jumping, falling and tumbling, performers will also show their excellent techniques by climbing upon a high table or by stepping on five wooden stakes, so as to show the lion's boldness and bravery.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
===Southern lion dancing===<br />
<br />
Different from the northern lion dancing, southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance. With its center in southern China’s Guangdong province, southern lion dancing is popular in Hong Kong, Macao and Southeast Asia. Southern lion, also called awake lion, is developed and evolved from northern lion. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow. It is called "Liu Bei lion", "Guan Gong lion" and "Zhang Fei lion", which respectively represent the character of Liu, Guan and Zhang, the three sworn brothers who found the Shu kingdom(AD 221-263). Guan Gong lion performs bravely, Zhang Fei lion's action is rough and belligerent, and Liu Bei lion is calm and powerful. Southern lion dancing pays attention to facial expression, and their facial expressions are always vivid and expressive. There are many movements in the southern lion dancing, dancers use different "Ma Bu" or horse stances, coupled with the movements of lion head, to show a variety of shapes.(Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
Dancers usually perform the traditional custom of “Cai Qing”, literally meaning "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming. People use lettuces as greens and hang them with red envelopes. The lion dancers perform in front of the greens with hesitation, then finally jump up and eat the lettuces in one gulp. (Yu Zhaojie 2008,76)<br />
<br />
In recent years, in order to maintain the characteristics of the traditional Chinese lion dance, the southern lion dancing and the northern lion dancing complement each other and improve together. (Liu Xing 2019,39)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Western Regions 西域<br />
<br />
mount 坐骑<br />
<br />
Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨<br />
<br />
gong 锣<br />
<br />
northern lion dancing 南狮<br />
<br />
southern lion dancing 北狮<br />
<br />
colorful silk ball 绣球<br />
<br />
wooden stakes 木桩<br />
<br />
spiritual resemblance神似<br />
<br />
Liu Bei lion 刘备狮<br />
<br />
Guan Gong lion 关公狮<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei lion 张飞狮<br />
<br />
sworn brothers 结义兄弟<br />
<br />
horse stances 马步<br />
<br />
Cai Qing 采青<br />
<br />
lettuces 生菜<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. How long is the history of lion dance in China?<br />
<br />
2. Why did people gradually accept lion as a sacred animal?<br />
<br />
3. Why did people use lion dance to celebrate the New Year?<br />
<br />
4. What is the main difference between southern lion dancing and northern lion dancing?<br />
<br />
5. What is the center of southern lion dancing?<br />
<br />
6. How many colors are there in the heads of southern lions? And what are they?<br />
<br />
7. What is “Cai Qing”? And what do you know about “Cai Qing”?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It is with a history of about 2000 years.<br />
<br />
2. Because lion is the mount of Manjusri Bodhisattva, a symbol of wisdom, people gradually have a good impression on lion, which is considered as a sacred animal to protect Buddha.<br />
<br />
3. In order to drive the monster away, the local farmers thought of making a lion model to intimidate the monster. The monster ran away immediately after seeing the "lion", so people believed that the lion was a god beast and a symbol of auspiciousness. From then on, people will use lion dance to celebrate the New Year.<br />
<br />
4. The northern lion dancing pays attention to form and the appearance and the northern lion looks like a real lion, but southern lion dancing attaches more importance to spiritual resemblance.<br />
<br />
5. It is in southern China’s Guangdong province.<br />
<br />
6. The head of southern lion has three colors, namely black, red and yellow.<br />
<br />
7. It means "plucking the greens", which is the most common step in the performance of the southern lion dancing. It is said that "Cai Qing" originally meant opposing the Qing Dynasty, but now it is interpreted as "vigorous", which means that the business is booming.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Liu Xing刘兴.(2019). 从文化结构看舞龙舞狮运动的现代化发展[Modern Development of Dragon and Lion Dance from the Perspective of Cultural Structure]. 体育师友Sports Teachers and Friends 42(04): 37-39.<br />
<br />
Yu Zhaojie于兆杰.(2008).中国舞狮的起源及其发展演变[The Origin and Development of Lion Dance in China]. 搏击. 武术科学Wushu Science (06): 75-76.<br />
<br />
Zhang Guobin张国斌.(2019).中国传统舞龙舞狮运动历史文化探索及传播研究[Research on the Historical and Cultural Exploration and Dissemination of Chinese Traditional Dragon and Lion Dance]. 散文百家Prose Hundred (10): 157-158.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanqing张延庆.(2003). 中国舞狮的起源与文化演变[Origin and Cultural Evolution of Lion Dancing in China]. 体育文化导刊Sports Culture Guide (11): 77-78.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 16:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Literature, Tang-Song - Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉 202070080584 英语笔译==<br />
===A. The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===<br />
[[File:Tang Song Ba Da Jia.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Brief Introduction of The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters===<br />
<br />
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters are Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan in Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong in Song Dynasty. This title was first appeared in the Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties. Among them, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan are the leaders of the Ancient Prose Movement in the Tang Dynasty, while Ouyang Xiu and "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe) are the core figures of the Ancient Prose Movement in the Song Dynasty. Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong are the representative figures of Linchuan Literature. Among the "Three Su"(Su Xun, Su shi, Su Zhe), Su Xun is their father and Su Shi is the older brother.Su Shi, together with Wang Anshi and Zeng Gong,was the student of Ouyang Xiu. （Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 25)<br />
<br />
In a word, they all advocated prose and opposed parallel prose, which has exerted profound influence on the literary world at that time and later generations. Their successive waves of innovation of ancient prose has changed the obsolete appearence of poetry and prose.(Fang Wenben 2013, 1)<br />
<br />
'''1. Han Yu'''<br />
[[File:Han Yu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Han Yu was a litterateur, philosopher, and thinker of Tang Dynasty. He was a native in Heyang, now Jiaozuo city in Henan province. Han Yu was honored as "The Decline of Eight Generations" by Su Shi in Song Dynasty, as well as the head of Eight Masters of Prose in Tang and Song Dynasties. Han Yu was called "Han Liu" with Liu Zongyuan, and his proses were juxtaposed with Du Fu's poems as "Du poem Han pen" by Du Mu. He enjoyed the fame as "The Article Giant" and "Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations" with great works like forty volumes of Han Changli Collection, ten volumes of External collection and The Teacher's Theory.(Hou Benta 2014, 135)<br />
<br />
Although disagreement in Liu Zongyuan’s political view, he still worked with Liu Zongyuan in the Ancient Prose Movement. As the pioneers, they were both against excessive pursuit of form of parallel prose but for the prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and both emphasized the importance of article’s contents so as to expand the expressive function of writing in classical Chinese.(He Lei 2017, 159)<br />
<br />
'''2. Liu Zongyuan'''<br />
[[File:Liu Zongyuan.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Liu Zongyuan was a litterateur, philosopher, proser and thinker of the Tang Dynasty. His ancestral home was Hedong, now in Yongji area of Yuncheng in Shanxi province. He was known as "Liu Hedong", " Mr. Hedong ", as well as "Liu Liuzhou" because of his official end of feudal provincial of Liuzhou. He was born in Chang'an and became a Jinshi in the 9th year of Zhenyuan, later official supervisor of imperial censor.<br />
<br />
He was juxtaposed with Han Yu as "Han Liu", with Liu Yuxi as "Liu Liu", with Wang Wei, Meng Haoran and Wei Yingwu as "Wang Meng Wei Liu". In his lifetime of less than 50 years, he left us more than 600 poems with more achievements in writing than poetry. The "Liu He Dong Colloection" was one of his representatives.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 26)<br />
<br />
He was a deep-thinking philosopher and great litterateur, who attached importance to the content of the article and advocated that writings should be practical. Therefore, he paid attention to the social function of literature and emphasized that literature should benefit the world. Moreover, he advocated the perfect combination of ideological content and artistic form with a serious attitude to writing. That means, it is important for the writer to have highly moral cultivation.(Zhangjian 2019, 1)<br />
<br />
'''3. Ouyang Xiu'''<br />
[[File:Ouyang Xiu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu was a statesman, litterateur, historian and poet in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was called the "Liu Yi scholar", which means that he had ten thousand volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk man alone. He was born in Mianzhou, now Mianyang city in Sichuan province, whose hometown is Jizhou Yongfeng, now Yongfeng county of Ji'an city in Jiangxi province.<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu's poem, Ci and prose were all the crown of that time. His poem was smooth, lyrical and euphemistic with a similar prose style, which stresses on momentum while keeping natural smoothness. His Ci was profound and graceful, inheriting the Yu Feng of the Southern Tang Dynasty. The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong was one of his representatives.<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu inherited and carried forward the fine tradition of Han and Liu's ancient prose, and pioneered the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement. As the leader of this movement, he not only drove away the old style of writing in the literary world, but also opened up a new style in poetry and also a new field of creation by virtue of his own unique style and high talent. He has made new achievements and pushed the creation of poetry and prose to a new height.(Hou Benta 2014, 136)<br />
<br />
'''4. Su Xun'''<br />
[[File:Su Xun.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Su Xun was a native of Meishan in Sichuan. When he was young, he performed poor in learning. At the age of 19, he married Mrs. Cheng. Later he determined to study hard at the age of 27. After a decade of hard work, he made huge progress in his academic field.<br />
<br />
Su Xun was a man full of political ambition. He said that the main purpose of his works was "to speak for the world", and to "apply to the present". He put forward a whole set of ideas of political innovation in some important argumentative papers such as Heng Lun and The Book to the Emperor. Owing to his great understanding of social reality, he was good at summing up experience and lessons from past history. Therefore, putting aside certain pedantic and biased views in his political discourse, many of them were still right on the spot.<br />
<br />
'''5. Su Shi'''<br />
[[File:Su Shi.jpg]]<br />
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Su Shi, with a fame as "Dongpo Jushi", was a native in Meishan in Sichuan. He was a famous litterateur, calligrapher, essayist, Ci writer, poet and the representative of the Unconstrained Ci School in Northern Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Su Shi was called "the first all-round talent in ancient China". He was regarded as one of the most outstanding men in literary and artistic attainments in thousands of years of Chinese history. He was called "Han Chao Su hai" with Han Yu in the prose area, "Ou Su" with Ouyang Xiu, "Su Huang" with Huang Tingjian, and "Su Xin" with Xin Qiji in the Ci area,.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 28)<br />
<br />
Su Shi's literary viewpoint was in line with Ouyang Xiu's, but he emphasized the originality, expressiveness and artistic value of literature more. His literary thought emphasized "creating for certain purposes", advocating nature and getting rid of bondage.(Zhangjian 2019, 1) Su Shi was a leading figure in the literary circle of the Northern Song Dynasty after Ouyang Xiu. Moreover, Huang Tingjian, Qin Guan, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, the four litterateurs of the Northern Song Dynasty, had been trained, rewarded and recommended by him, so they were called "Su Men Four bachelors".<br />
<br />
'''6. Su Zhe'''<br />
[[File:Su Zhe.jpg]]<br />
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Su Zhe was born in Meishan, Meizhou, now Sichuan province. In the the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), Su Zhe, together with his brother Su Shi, climbed jinshi branch. <br />
<br />
Su Zhe's prose showed the deep and mellow spirit. He had his own views on ancient writing. In the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council, he put forward the theory of "literary style" . He performed well in politics and history. In his political works such as The New Theory and the Six States, he mostly discussed world affairs. From these works, we can draw lessons from the past and criticize the current problems. He was also very insightful in reform. In addition, he was also quite outstanding in Ode, such as his work the "Ode to Ink bamboo".(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 29)<br />
<br />
'''7. Wang Anshi'''<br />
[[File:Wang Anshi.jpg]]<br />
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Wang Anshi, also known as Banshan in his twilight years, was conferred the title of Duke Jingguo. He was born in Linchuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, now Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province.<br />
<br />
Wang Anshi was not only an outstanding politician and thinker, but also a brilliant litterateur. In order to realize his political ideal, he closely linked literary creation with political activities, emphasizing that literature should aim to serve the society first. That means, he emphasized the realistic function and social effect of articles, and advocated the unity of literature and Taoism. His prose largely carried out his literary opinions of enlightenment of political decrees for world use.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016, 30)<br />
<br />
'''8. Zeng Gong'''<br />
[[File:Zeng Gong.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Zeng Gong was known as "Mr. Nan Feng". He was born in Nanfeng, Jianchang, now Nanfeng County, Fuzhou city, Jiangxi Province. In the second year of Jiayou(AD 1057), he became a Jinshi. As a politician and essayist of the Northern Song Dynasty and one of the "eight masters" of the Tang and Song Dynasties, he was also one of the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng", including Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.<br />
<br />
Zeng Gong was a supporter and participant of Ouyang Xiu's ancient prose movement. He advocated the doctrine before the text.(Zhangjian 2019,1) His prose was natural and simple with little attention to literary grace. Of the eight masters, he was the less affectionate one. His articles were rarely lyrical works, but mostly argumentation and narrative.(Zhou Zhenfu 2016,31) His prose was good at making arguments such as the Book to Ouyang She Ren, the Book to Bachelor CAI. In those works, he argued on the treatment of disorder and expressed his deep feelings.<br />
<br />
'''9. Comparison between the Ancient Prose Movement and Renaissance'''<br />
<br />
Although there were seven or eight hundred years from the Ancient Prose Movement to the Italian Renaissance,they both happened in the middle ancient period of their history respectively. Similarly, they both inherited the essence of classical culture and further completed the historical mission of literary retro. So we can regard them as historical peak in their cultures.(Lu Sihong 2016, 71)<br />
<br />
Comparison in ideology:<br />
<br />
The Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song dynasties advocated the restoration of Confucianism of the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and the realization of the realistic goal of carrying the Tao in literature.(Lu Sihong 2016, 73) It was against the parallel prose and the floating style since the Six Dynasties but for the gentle and honest poetic concept. While the Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.(Wang Yaping 2001, 8) Their premise and foundation are their own classical thoughts.<br />
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Comparison in writing style:<br />
<br />
The two retro movements were marked by the retro style to restore the creation mode of ancient prose, thus promoting the process of literary movement. The Ancient Prose Movement of in Tang and Song Dynasties studied the simple language style of the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties, while the Renaissance restored the elegant and beautiful characteristics of the ancient Greek.(Lu Sihong 2016, 76)<br />
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Comparison in literary form:<br />
<br />
The Ancient Prose Movement not only corrected the floating and rigid writing style of the Six Dynasties, but also laid a good foundation for the development of prose in later generations. It was in the form of scattered single sentences with less flowery and redundant allusions but more in colloquial language.(He Lei 2017, 159) Although the literary works of the Renaissance inherited the elegant style of classicism, it still changed obviously in the aspect of stylistic creation. Influenced by literary theories and works, Italian literature showed innovation in form. As Mr. Zhu Guangqian said: "Italian literature is a new type of literature different from classical literature.(Lu Sihong 2016,81)<br />
<br />
===B. Terms and Expressions===<br />
The Eight Tang-Song Prose Masters 唐宋八大家<br />
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Banknotes of Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties 《唐宋八大家文钞》<br />
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Ancient Prose Movement 古文运动<br />
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parallel prose 骈文<br />
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The Decline of Eight Generations 文起八代之衰<br />
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The Article Giant 文章巨公<br />
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Admired Literate of One Hundred Generations 百代文宗<br />
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Han Changli Collection 《韩昌黎集》<br />
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External collection 《外集》<br />
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The Teacher's Theory《师说》<br />
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Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties 先秦两汉时期<br />
<br />
writing in classical Chinese 文言文<br />
<br />
feudal provincial of Liuzhou 柳州刺史<br />
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official supervisor of imperial censor 监察御史<br />
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Liu He Dong Colloection 《柳河东集》<br />
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Northern Song Dynasty 北宋<br />
<br />
a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions 金石遗文一千卷<br />
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Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties 三代<br />
<br />
the crown of that time 一时之冠<br />
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Southern Tang Dynasty 南唐<br />
<br />
Yu Feng 余风<br />
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The Anthology of Ouyang Wenzhong Gong 《欧阳文忠公文集》<br />
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the Northern Song Dynasty poetry innovation movement北宋诗文革新运动<br />
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Heng Lun 《衡论》<br />
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Duke Jingguo 荆国公<br />
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The Book to the Emperor 《上皇帝书》<br />
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Dongpo Jushi 东坡居士<br />
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Ci writer 词人<br />
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Unconstrained Ci School豪放派<br />
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literary and artistic attainments 文学艺术造诣<br />
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the first all-round talent in ancient China 中国古代第一全才<br />
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Su Men Four bachelors 苏门四学士<br />
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the Book to Han Tai Wei in Privy Council 《上枢密韩太尉书》<br />
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The New Theory《新论》<br />
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On the Six Kingdoms 《六国论》<br />
<br />
Ode 赋<br />
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The Ode to Ink bamboo 《墨竹赋》<br />
<br />
Seven Zengs of Nanfeng 南丰七曾<br />
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the doctrine before the text先道后文<br />
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the Book to Ouyang She Ren 《上欧阳舍人书》<br />
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the Book to Bachelor Cai 《上蔡学士书》<br />
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the Six Dynasties 六朝<br />
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===C. Questions===<br />
1.Who are the pioneers of the Ancient Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
2.Which kind of prose they advocate in the Ancient Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
3.Do you know any representative work of Liu Zongyuan?<br />
<br />
4.Why Ouyang Xiu is called "Liu Yi Scholar"?<br />
<br />
5.What’s the relationship among Su Xun, Su Shi and Su Zhe?<br />
<br />
6.Who are the "Seven Zengs of Nanfeng"?<br />
<br />
7.Do you know any about the Renaissance?<br />
<br />
===D. Answers===<br />
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1.Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.<br />
<br />
2.The prose of Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties.<br />
<br />
3.The "Liu He Dong Colloection".<br />
<br />
4.Because he had ten thousands volumes of collections, a thousand volumes of collections of inscriptions of Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties, a piano, a chess, a pot of wine and a drunk man alone.<br />
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5.Su Xun is the father of Su Shi and Su Zhe and Su Shi is the older brother.<br />
<br />
6.Zeng Gong, Zeng Zhao, Zeng Bu, Zeng Yu, Zeng Hong, Zeng Xie and Zeng Dun.<br />
<br />
7.The Renaissance, with classical culture as a tool, strongly criticized medieval theology and carried forward the humanism and scientific rational spirit of ancient Greece and Rome.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Fang Wenben 房本文.(2013).士族兴衰与骈散消长—唐代古文运动发微 [The rise and fall of nobles and parallel prose- The subtleties of the Ancient prose movement in the Tang Dynasty]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.<br />
<br />
Hou Benta 候本塔.(2014). 论唐、宋古文运动中的韩愈与欧阳修 [On Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu in the Tang and Song Dynasties]. 三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Three Gorges University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition) 36(S1):135-137.<br />
<br />
He Lei 何蕾.(2017). 中唐古文运动：社会转型背景下的文体之变 [The Ancient Prose Movement in the Middle Tang Dynasty: Stylistic Changes in the Context of social transformation]. 青海社会科学 Qinghai Social Sciences (03):156-162.<br />
<br />
Lu Sihong 芦思宏.(2016). 略论中西文学的复古倾向—以唐代古文运动与意大利文艺复兴为例 [On the retro tendency in Chinese and Western Literature -- a case study of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang Dynasty and the Italian Renaissanc].中外文化与文论 Chinese and Foreign culture and literary theory (01):71-81.<br />
<br />
Wang Yaping 王亚平.(2001). 论西欧中世纪的三次文艺复兴 [On the three Renaissance in The Middle Ages in Western Europe]. 东北师大学报 Journal of Northeast Normal University (06):1-8.<br />
<br />
Zhangjian 张剑.(2019). 唐宋古文运动的文学维度 [The literary dimension of the Ancient Prose Movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 10-28(010).<br />
<br />
Zhangjian 张剑.(2019). 唐宋古文运动的思想维度 [The ideological dimension of the Ancient Prose movement in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 人民政协报 People's Political Consultative Conference News 08-26(010).<br />
<br />
Zhao Kun 赵鲲.(2016). 中国文学中的两大文学变革运动—古文运动与“五四”新文学运动之比较 [A comparison between the two major literary revolutions in Chinese literature - the Ancient Prose Movement and the May 4th New Literary Movement]. 解放军艺术学院学报 Journal of Pla Art Academy (01):113-119.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫.(2016). 唐宋八大家论 [On the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties]. 中华活页文选(教师版) Chinese Loose-leaf Selections (Teachers' edition) (12):25-31.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Music, Instruments, Pipa - Gao Mingzhu 高明珠 - 202070080585 - MTI 英语笔译==<br />
===1. A Brief Introduction===<br />
<br />
[[File:1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The structure of Pipa. image from 360Baike. Click[https://image.so.com/view?q=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&src=srp&correct=%E7%90%B5%E7%90%B6%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%9B%BE%E7%89%87&ancestor=list&cmsid=b749b87b72b5c9427d6560a39d41548f&cmras=6&cn=0&gn=0&kn=0&crn=0&bxn=0&fsn=60&cuben=0&pornn=0&manun=0&adstar=0&clw=247#id=22b2926be2637560e928bbc9318219fb&currsn=0&ps=58&pc=58]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Pipa belongs to plucked stringed instruments. Being made of wood or bamboo, its speaker box takes the shape of half pear with 4 strings on it ,which was made of silk initially while being made of steel wire, steel rope or nylon now. The "Pin(品，those wooden strips on Pipa’s face plate for pressing)" and "Xiang（相, those horizontal strips on Pipa’s neck for pressing）" are set on the face plate and neck respectively to determine the positions of different sounds. When playing, the player holds it erectly using the left hand to press the string and the right hand to play. It is an important ethnic musical instrument which can be used in recital, accompaniment and ensemble. Pipa has a wide range of vocal range. Its playing skills rank the first in Chinese national instruments and its performance forms are also the most abundant in Chinese folk music, it is thus called the No.1 in plucked instruments.(360baike 2020)<br />
<br />
===2.The Development of Pipa===<br />
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The development of The Chinese pipa has gone through four stages: first, the Qu Xiang pipa（curving-neck pipa） was introduced into China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and became an important musical instrument; In the second stage, the art of pipa reached its peak in the Tang Dynasty, turning a breakthrough in timbre and performance technology and realizing the Chinesization. In the third stage, pipa in the Song and Yuan Dynasties with the requirements of vocal accompaniment to increase the grade, expand the range; In the fourth stage, large-scale pipa divertimentoes were further developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the pipa was just introduced into the Central Plains. With the high frequency of population migration, the pipa spread to the south, especially the south of the Yangtze River. The pipa's playing style was just introduced into the Central Plains, but it still retained its strong western characteristics. In the western regions back then, the pipa playing was an on-horseback entertainment project, the initial pipa culture belonged to the nomadic music culture which created by people who graze animals, hunt for food and ride horses without definite residence. All of these determined its way of playing was unchained and heroic. And the unrestrained nature of nomad tribe determined the simple way of playing in pipa. There was only one way to play pipa, which was plucking the strings with fingers. In addition, the playing posture of pipa back then mainly was horizontal holding style .(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16) <br />
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During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, having experienced many years of exchanges between the nomadic culture of western regions and the traditional culture of Central Plains, pipa’s inherent western-region playing style gradually disappeared. Chinese traditional instrument playing style melted in its playing characteristics, and the pipa made great breakthroughs in playing skills and artistic expression and other aspects. During this period, pipa was still played mainly by plucking the strings, but it had changed from the original plucking to pointing, and the posture of playing changed from the initial horizontal holding style to vertical holding style. After receiving the baptism of Chinese traditional culture for hundreds of years, pipa's unrestrained playing style brought into the central Plains changed into an introverted and elegant playing style, and it also changed from a music playing on the horseback to a music playing in the court. The performance occasions had undergone a qualitative change, and the playing style was more of a minority and delicacy.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
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During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the methods and skills of pipa performance were more mature, and the playing methods and postures had been formed. Compared with the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the pipa performance at this time was dominated by finger-playing, giving full play to the flexible playing function of the five fingers, and the posture of performance became dominated by vertical holding style. It can be seen that the range of the audience of pipa performance changed from small to large. Pipa performance was enjoyed by dignitaries and rich people at that time. Pipa performance was specially performed on large formal occasions to entertain and adjust the atmosphere on the scene.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
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During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the way people playing pipa still continued the finger-playing style in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the posture of playing pipa remained upright. However, after inheriting the essence, players were more in pursuit of systematization, specialization and refinement of performance. As people did more studies on culture, the pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. The change of pipa playing style also made its audience change, so not every class of the group can appreciate its beauty.(Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying 2018,16)<br />
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===3.Pipa Schools and Their Chracteristics===<br />
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The formation of Pipa schools in China was due to the southwards moving of the economic center in ancient China which made the pipa school be divided into the North School and the South School. Later, the North School collapsed and the South School broke up into various factions.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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(1)The Wuxi School<br />
<br />
The Wuxi School belongs to the original North School, and is different from the South School in terms of the tremolo. It plays a role as a connection in the development of pipa, laying a solid foundation for the development of later generations. Although Wuxi School was not as influential as the South School, it left a precious record in the expression of emotion in pipa art.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
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(2)The Pinghu School<br />
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The most distinctive performing techniques of the pipa are the Pinghu School's tremolo of the right hand fingers. It also has other characteristic techniques such as " paired butterfly flying" .(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(3)The Pudong School <br />
<br />
Pudong School is named after its birthplace. It is called Pudong School because it originated in Nanhui District of Shanghai. It was founded by Ju Shilin in the Qianlong Period of the Qing Dynasty and passed down from generation to generation. In the aspect of style, the imposing manner is strong, the timbre is forceful, the repertoire is both literary and military; In terms of playing skills, it has its own characteristics, including parallel string and so on.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(4)The Chongming School<br />
<br />
The Chongming School also originated in Shanghai, and is called the Chongming School because it originated in Chongming Island. In terms of playing techniques, The Chongming School pursues to be clear and dense, sparse and vigorous, advocates the continuance in the slow, the order in the fast, and the soft and lively sound. In the aspect of emotional expression, it tends to be humorous and quiet, unique.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
(5)The Shanghai School<br />
<br />
This school gathers the characteristics of each school and has its own characteristics. In terms of playing techniques, it has created many new fingering techniques and most of the emotional expressions are characterized by masculinity and unrestraint.(Deng Sijia 2020,10)<br />
<br />
===4. Traditional Pipa Music===<br />
<br />
Traditional pipa music can be divided into military songs, literary songs and military-literary songs.<br />
<br />
Military songs emphasize the playing skills and strength of the right hand. Its style is magnificent, generous and grand. The music focuses on narration being realistic and narrative. It is often narrated continuously according to the development of content and plot. It has a large structure, vivid and colorful plot, and distinct paragraphs.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) The representative repertoires are "Ambush on All Sides(十面埋伏)", "Bury Me High(霸王卸甲)", "Hai Qing Hunting the Swan(海青拿天鹅)", "General Order in the Han Dynasty(汉将军令)". <br />
<br />
Literary song emphasizes the expression of the left hand skill with the style of being exquisite, light, elegant and lyric. It is mainly for lyrical expression and rich in generality and talking. It often expresses the profound heart talking or the artistic conception that people are looking forward to with simple and moving melody or beautiful and fresh tone.(Cheng Xuange 2020,29) Its representative repertoires are "Flute and Drum at Sunset(夕阳箫鼓)", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad(昭君出塞)", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace(汉宫秋月)", "The Lofty Moon(月儿高)", "The Green Lotus(青莲乐府)", "Whisper from Pipa(琵琶语)", "Frontier Songs(塞上曲)" and so on.<br />
<br />
Military-literary song is the combination of martial song and literary song. The representative songs are "The Spring Snow(阳春白雪)", "High Mountain and Flowing Water(高山流水)", "Dragon Boat(龙船)", "Flute and Drum at Sunset(夕阳箫鼓)" and so on.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*360百科 “琵琶”词条. (2020).[The introduction of pipa on 360 Baike website].https://baike.so.com/doc/4922064-5141209.html.2020<br />
<br />
*Deng Sijia. 邓思佳 . (2020).中国琵琶流派问题及特征 [Schools and characteristics of Chinese pipa]. ''艺术家'' [Artist](10):56.<br />
<br />
*Zhou Xianshun, Zhang Yuying. 周显顺, 张玉莹. (2018). 浅谈琵琶演奏的发展史 [A brief analysis of the development of the playing of pipa]. ''黄河之声''[Voice of the Yellow River] (16):56.<br />
<br />
*Cheng Xuange. 成玄歌. (2020). 琵琶不同派别与文曲、武曲的关系——以平湖派和浦东派为例 [The relationship between literary songs and military songs and different schools of pipa -Taking Pinghu School and Pudong School as examples]. ''艺术品鉴''[Art Appreciation] (29):51-52.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
*弹拨乐器—plucked instruments<br />
<br />
*汉化—Chinesization<br />
<br />
*套曲—divertimentoes<br />
<br />
*游牧民族—nomad tribe<br />
<br />
*宫廷乐—court music<br />
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*轮指法—tremolo<br />
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*音色—timbre<br />
<br />
*曲目—repertoire<br />
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*并弦—parallel string<br />
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*指法—fingering techniques<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1、How many stages did pipa go through during its development?<br />
<br />
2、What characteristics did pipa have during Wei and Jin dynasties?<br />
<br />
3、What changes had been made to pipa during Ming and Qing dynasties?<br />
<br />
4、How many schools does pipa have and what are they?<br />
<br />
5、Can you list at least 3 representative repertoires of literary songs played by pipa? <br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1、Four.<br />
<br />
2、It still retained its strong western characteristics, and the playing way of it is unchained, heroic and simple.<br />
<br />
3、The pipa playing performance became more systematic, which put limitations and restrictions to the theme as well as the style of pipa playing. What’s more, the studies on pipa mostly made by scholars, thus the pipa playing took the literary characteristics. <br />
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4、Five. They are Wuxi school, Pinghu school, Pudong School, Chongming school andShanghai school. <br />
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5、"Flute and Drum at Sunset", "Zhao Jun Going Abroad", "Autumn Moon over Han Palace", "The Lofty Moon", "The Green Lotus", "Whisper from Pipa", "Frontier Songs" .<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
==Mythology: Huli-jing - Grosheva, Anna - Student No. 201921080001. Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
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=== Huli-jing figure in Chinese mythology and its analogs in Japan and Korea === <br />
<br />
The topic of werewolves in the XXI century is perhaps one of the most discussed and studied. Along with vampires and zombies, the image of werewolves is firmly entrenched in world cinema and literature. However, as a rule, speaking about the motives for the transformation of a person into an animal, most people have information mainly about lycanthropy, that is, about the specific transformation of a person into a wolf (werewolf). At the same time, the theme of werewolves is represented by a fairly large number of transformations of a person not only into a wolf but also into other animals. In Chinese mythology, one of the most popular werewolf myths is the myth of the Huli Jing or werewolf foxes. In the Middle Ages, these myths were very popular and in-demand among writers. But what is the attitude of Huli-Jing in modern China? Are they given a place in modern culture, or do werewolf foxes now sound more like a kind of atavism or a children's fairy tale? (Xu Zhonglin, 1992, 57)<br />
<br />
[[File:fox.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Nine Tailed Fox by ARIELAkris, image from DeviantArt. Click [https://www.deviantart.com/arielakris/art/Nine-Tailed-Fox-384738575]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
'''1. Huli-jing (狐狸精) in China'''<br />
<br />
First, we need to recreate the image of the Huli-Jing and what was seen in ancient and medieval China. Most often, the Huli-Jing was presented in the form of not just a young, but extremely beautiful women. Interestingly, the image of werewolf foxes has been known in China since the times of the Xia dynasty and its founder Yu, who married a nine-tailed white fox who lived on Mount Tu. People, especially women, believed that due to the cult of the fox, they would be able to gain unearthly beauty and immortality. The official authorities of the ancient and medieval dynasties tried to resist the representatives of the Huli Jing cult, but it was only during the Song dynasty reign. At that time the cult of the fox, including the cult of Da Ji, was almost completely destroyed. However, the cult and image of Huli Jing were not fully eradicated in other parts of China. Probably, a more competent decision in between acolytes area was made to give the werefox woman more kind and compassionate traits, which in one way or another should justify her image compared to the cruel ancestor. (Kang Xiaofei, 2006, 206)<br />
<br />
Perhaps the most striking examples of where the changed image of the Huli Jing is found can be called the stories of Pu Songlin about werewolf foxes. It is his stories, where girls are subject to the curse of turning into foxes, that reflect their position as hostages of their own life situations or even fears. The theme of fatal love in the stories of werefoxes appears as a continuous line in Pu Songling tales. This suggests that despite the fact that Huli Jing strives for happiness, she remains a spirit that is not a person. In addition, despite the altered level of female foxes, they will still bear the curse of their savage ancestors, who personified evil in its purest form, and therefore there can be no happy ending for those who bear such heavy punishment. (Pu Song-ling, 2008, 187)<br />
<br />
Of course, the image of the Huli Jing as a mythological character by the 21st century was constantly supplemented with small details. We can say that most of the works of literature and cinema, in which the werewolf fox was encountered, for the most part, were very strongly romanticized. Remaining in its own way a relatively neutral character, Huli Jing nevertheless gradually becomes one of the most popular characters of many writers and screenwriters, not only in China but also in many other countries. A striking and original example of where the Huli Jing appears is the work of the writer Ken Liu entitled "Good Hunt". The author presents not only a very interesting view of the Huli Jing but also explains why the legendary characters of Chinese mythology are gradually disappearing from the memory of the Chinese people. (Ken Liu, 2012, 202.)<br />
<br />
In addition to literary works, Huli Jing is quite often encountered in Chinese cinema, as an episodic character or a protagonist. One of the most striking images of a werewolf fox can be considered the film "Painted Skin (畫皮)", where the main character is Huli Jing and must eat men's hearts to maintain her youth and beauty. This film is based on the story of Pu Songling and is one of the key works of cinema and modern Chinese culture, which fully reveals the tragedy of the werewolf fox. Besides, Huli Jing is featured in a fairly large number of Chinese television series, each of which gives its own view of what character Huli Jing should be. (Wikipedia 2020a)<br />
<br />
Quite a lot of information about werewolf foxes can be obtained from the TV series "The Legend of the Nine-Tailed Fox" released in 2016. The main interest here is not only a rather vivid description of the Huli Jing, which according to the plot are one family and are forced to seek and return to their place the sacred fruit from the magic garden. This, perhaps, is an attempt to provide an explanation of the true nature of werewolf foxes, who for a long time rushed from good to evil. (Wikipedia 2020b) <br />
<br />
To sum up, I would like to note that the transformation of the image of Huli Jing took place at a gradual pace. Since the reign of the ancient Chinese dynasties, the image of werefoxes has been predominantly negative and associated with deceit, seduction, and intrigue. But further, the situation changed in connection with the development of the cults of foxes, which they tried to give the appearance of “victims of circumstances,” and all the negative features are just a slight exaggeration. Thanks to Pu Songling, the Huli Jing truly became much more positive beings, and the stories about them were presented in terms of stories of unfortunate and unhappy love. The appearance of the Huli Jing, which rushes from good to evil for many years, has been romanticized and transformed, becoming a more positive character, although not devoid of some negative features. (Pu Songling 2008, 141)<br />
<br />
'''2. Kitsune (キツネ) in Japan''' <br />
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In Japanese folklore, these animals have great knowledge, long life, and magical abilities. Chief among them is the ability to take shapeshift themselves; the fox, according to legend, learns to do this after reaching a certain age (usually a hundred years old, although in some legends it is fifty). Kitsune usually take the form of seductive beauty, a pretty young girl, but sometimes they turn into men. It should be noted that in Japanese mythology there was a mixture of indigenous Japanese beliefs that characterized the fox as an attribute of the god Inari ("Fox-messenger") and the Chinese, who considered foxes to be werewolves, a genus close to demons. Other abilities commonly ascribed to kitsune include the ability to take possession of other people's bodies, to breathe out or otherwise create fire, to appear in other people's dreams, and the ability to create illusions so complex that they are almost indistinguishable from reality. Some of the legends go further, talking about kitsune with the ability to warp space and time, drive people crazy, or take on such inhuman or fantastic forms as trees of indescribable height or the second moon in the sky. (Bathgate 2004, 102)<br />
<br />
Kitsunes are associated with both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs. In Shinto, kitsune are associated with Inari, the patron deity of rice fields and entrepreneurship. Initially, foxes were the messengers (tsukai) of this deity, but now the difference between them has become so blurred that Inari is sometimes depicted as a fox by himself. In Buddhism, they gained fame thanks to the Shingon school of secret Buddhism, popular in the 9th-10th centuries in Japan, one of the main deities of which, Dakini, was depicted riding a fox across the sky. A kitsune can have up to nine tails. In general, it is believed that the older and stronger the foxes are, the more tails they have. Some sources even claim that a kitsune grows an extra tail every hundred or thousand years of its life. However, foxes found in fairy tales almost always have one, five, or nine tails. When kitsune are given nine tails, their fur turns silvery, white, or gold. (Bathgate 2004, 96)<br />
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'''3. Kumiho (구미호) in Korea'''<br />
<br />
Kumiho - (구 "ku" - nine, 미 "mi" - tail, 호 "ho" - fox - "fox with nine tails") is a folklore animal, the fox of which is first mentioned in the era of Gojoseon. According to legends, only a fox that lives for a thousand years can become 구미호. One of her superpowers is transforming into a beautiful girl. Although in myths there are also references to the becoming of a charming young man. In this form, the mythical animal fell in love with the opposite sex, and then ate their liver (according to some beliefs, and the heart). Why exactly the liver? We can say that the liver contains human energy, that is, we eat and receive the energy that our liver stores. In a later period, kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever. There are several ways: 구미호 will not eat human flesh and kill for a thousand days. The second option is to eat the liver of a thousand men over a thousand years. The third - will live in a cave without sunlight, eating only wormwood and garlic. And also, if the person who recognized her as 구미호 in human form, keeps this secret for ten years.<br />
[https://thesupernaturalfoxsisters.com/2015/06/03/monster-of-the-week-kumiho/]<br />
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===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Shapeshifter – 成精<br />
<br />
Creature –生物<br />
<br />
Seductive –诱人的<br />
<br />
Damnation –诅咒<br />
<br />
Metaphor –隐喻<br />
<br />
Ascribe –属性<br />
<br />
Indigenous –土着<br />
<br />
Deity – 反面人物<br />
<br />
Liver – 肝脏<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Bathgate, Michael 迈克尔·巴斯盖特 (2004). The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities. 狐狸在日本宗教和民间传说中的手工艺：变身者，转变和重复。// Routledge. -2004. - 190.<br />
<br />
*Pu Song-ling 蒲松龄. (2008). Fox charm. Monks-wizards. 狐狸的魅力。 僧侣向导。// Eastern literature 东方文学。 –2008. - 280.<br />
<br />
*Kang Xiaofei 康小飞. (2006). The cult of the fox: Power, gender, and popular religion in late imperial and modern China. 狐狸的崇拜：帝国晚期和近代中国//Columbia University Press 哥伦比亚大学出版社的权力，性别和大众宗教. – New York 纽约, 2006. – 269.<br />
<br />
*Ken Liu 刘坚. (2012). Good Hunting 狩猎愉快.// Strange Horizons 奇怪的地平线. - 2012. - 431.<br />
<br />
*Xu Zhonglin. 徐忠林. (1992). Creation of the Gods 上帝的创造.// Translated by Gu Zhizhong 顾志忠译. – Beijing 北京, 551. <br />
<br />
*Wikipedia 维基百科. (2020a). - Painted Skin (2008 film) 畫皮 (2008年電影) - https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%95%AB%E7%9A%AE_(2008%E5%B9%B4%E9%9B%BB%E5%BD%B1)<br />
<br />
*Wikipedia 维基百科. (2020b). - Legend of Nine Tails Fox 青丘狐传说 - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend_of_Nine_Tails_Fox<br />
<br />
*The Supernatural Fox Sisters 邪恶力量狐狸姐妹 - Monster of the Week: Kumiho - https://thesupernaturalfoxsisters.com/2015/06/03/monster-of-the-week-kumiho/<br />
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===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What was the attitude towards the Huli Jing in Ancient China?<br />
<br />
2. Can we characterize Kitsune as a positive or negative character?<br />
<br />
3. Could Kumiho become human forever?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Initially, in ancient China, Huli Jing was perceived in a negative context. Only later, towards the Middle Ages, the attitude towards them changed and people began to perceive them as victims of circumstances.<br />
<br />
2. In Japanese mythology, Kitsune was not unambiguously good or bad creatures.<br />
<br />
3. In a later period, Kumiho, according to numerous legends, could get rid of the status of a monster and become a man forever.<br />
References ..................<br />
<br />
==Chinese Characters - Gu Dongfang 顾东方 - 202070080635 - Interpretation 英语口译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Characters===<br />
<br />
===Origin===<br />
[[File:hanzi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|hanzi, image from Baike. Click [...] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years.According to legend, Chinese characters were invented earlier by Cangjie (c. 2650 B.C.E.), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Fu Hsi. The legend tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì—Chinese characters. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of civilization, for good and for bad.（Boltz, William G. 2003）<br />
<br />
===Evolution of Chinese characters===<br />
<br />
Chinese characters from the earliest Chinese hieroglyphs to today’s simple characters have undergone through a very long process of development which can be divided into two periods: ancient writing and modern writing. Associated with these two periods, Chinese characters had experienced several times of evolution into many different script forms. Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC) is the earliest systematic form of Chinese characters inscribed on animal bones and tortoise shells. Then Chinese characters evolved through the bronze script of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–256 century BC), seal scrip in the late Zhou Dynasty and Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), official script in the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and regular script. Based on pictographs, Chinese characters gradually developed from the form of drawings to strokes and from complex to simple ones.(Wang Xianchun 2002)<br />
<br />
===Ancient Chinese characters===<br />
<br />
====Oracle bone script====<br />
<br />
Oracle bone script (Chinese: 甲骨文, Pinyin: jiăgŭwén) is the inscription on animal bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty (1711–1066 BC). It was first excavated by the local farmers in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province and was sold as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine called “long” (dragon bones).<br />
<br />
====Bronze script====<br />
<br />
In the “Age of Bronze Ware” of China during the period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ware was cast as a container, and most often as the sacrificial vessels to inscribe great events such as sacrifice, battle results, trade of slaves, etc. in a style just like the oracle bone script. In the Shang Dynasty, the inscriptions on bronze ware had very few characters, the form of which is extremely close to that of the oracle bone script. The size, complexity, formation of the Chinese characters are inconsistent. However, in the Zhou Dynasty, the characters in bronze inscriptions were simpler, and the size and formation were more fixed. The bronze inscriptions looked like drawings but had made significant progress from pictographic forms to block-shaped linear words we use today.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
<br />
====Seal script====<br />
Toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a new script called the “seal script” (Chinese: 篆书, Pinyin: zhuànshū) begun to be used in Qin State. This script was usually written on bamboo slips and pieces of silk or inscribed on rocks and stones. Owing to the regular and symmetric structure, rounded and graceful lines, it is deemed to be the most beautiful style of characters in ancient China by calligraphers. It is still used for inscribing names on a seal today. There are two kinds of seal script: large or great seal script and lesser or small seal script.The large seal script (Chinese: 大篆, Pinyin: dàzhuàn) is a traditional reference to all types of Chinese writing systems used before the Qin Dynasty. However, due to the lack of research achievements and precision, scholars often avoid the large seal script, instead of using more specified terms to the examples of writing. The large seal script was widely used in many vassal states in the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC).After the Qin State conquered the other six states and established the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), Emperor Qinshihuang unified characters in order to strengthen his control. Based on the Large Seal script and rearranging the variant forms of characters in each state, the unified characters were decreed, called lesser or small seal script (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiăozhuàn) which was the official style of characters in Qin Dynasty used for all the documents of the government. It was the result of the first extensive simplification and standardization of Chinese characters. Compared with the oracle bone script and bronze script, in the lesser seal script, the forms of characters were simpler, the writing method was consistent, and the character pattern was more orderly. <br />
The Ancient Writing Period, from the earliest known oracle bone script to the development of the seal script, lasted about 1,160 years. And the lesser seal script marked the end of the ancient Chinese characters.（ Wang Enquan 2006)<br />
<br />
===Modern characters===<br />
====Clerical script====<br />
<br />
After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.<br />
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.（After the unification of China, the seal script was still popular, but could not satisfy the needs of people because of its lengthened and curved lines being written were quite time-consuming, so another faster and convenient style of writing called “clerical script” (Chinese: 隶书, Pinyin: lìshū) appeared during the late of the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty (206 BC — 220 AD). In order to save time, they changed the rounded lines into straight ones which became the officially approved formal way of writing. There is also a historical legend which attributed the creation of a clerical script to Cheng Miao, who was said to have invented it on the orders of Qinshihuang.<br />
From the clerical change to the present, it has been more than 2,200 years. This the period in the historical development of Chinese characters is still called modern because the structures of Chinese characters have remained the same until today. Although there has not been any change about the structures of Chinese characters since the clerical change, the strokes of Chinese characters have undergone two main stages: regularization and normalization.( Wang Enquan 2006)<br />
<br />
====Regular script====<br />
<br />
Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, the strokes with the wavy endings and some thick curvy lines seen in the clerical script became smooth and straight. This change is known as “regularization” after which the characters called the regular script (Chinese: 楷书, Pinyin: kăishū) appeared at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220)and replaced the clerical script to be the major font of daily writing. The regular script could serve as an example of learning by the people for generations even up to the present days because it is much simpler and easier to be written than the clerical script. So many calligraphers like Zhong Yao in the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 AD), Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 AD), Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, and Liu Gongquan in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Su Shi in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) contributed to the regular script as the standard for students to admire, imitate and learn. It has been the standard and formal writing style for more than 1,800 years with the widest and longest usage. <br />
===Formation of Chinese characters===<br />
<br />
====Pictograms====<br />
<br />
Contrary to popular belief, pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 (rì) for "sun," 月 (yuè) for "moon," and 木 (mù) for "tree."（Nie Yan 2005)<br />
<br />
====Pictophonetic compounds====<br />
<br />
Also called semantic-phonetic compounds, or phono-semantic compounds, this category represents the largest group of characters in modern Chinese. Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.Examples are 河 (hé) river, 湖 (hú) lake, 流 (liú) stream, 冲 (chōng) riptide, 滑 (huá) slippery. All these characters have on the left a radical of three dots, which is a simplified pictograph for a water drop, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
====Ideograph ====<br />
<br />
Also called a simple indicative, simple ideograph, or ideogram, characters of this sort either add indicators to pictographs to make new meanings, or illustrate abstract concepts directly. For instance, while 刀 (dāo) is a pictogram for "knife," placing an indicator in the knife makes 刃 (rèn), an ideogram for "blade." Other common examples are 上 (shàng) for "up" and 下 (xià) for "down." This category is small, as most concepts can be represented by characters in other categories.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
====Logical aggregates====<br />
<br />
Also translated as associative compounds, characters of this sort combine pictograms to symbolize an abstract concept. For instance, 木 (mu) is a pictogram of a tree, and putting two 木together makes 林 ,meaning forest. Combining 日 (rì) sun and 月(yuè) moon makes 明(míng) bright, which is traditionally interpreted as symbolizing the combination of sun and moon as the natural sources of light. <br />
====Associate transformation====<br />
<br />
Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 (kǎo) to verify and 老 (lǎo) old were once the same character, meaning "elderly person," but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others.（ Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia，2005）<br />
<br />
Also called phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 (zì), which has lost its original meaning of nose completely and exclusively means oneself, or 萬 (wan), which originally meant scorpion but is now used only in the sense of ten thousand.(Liu Youxin 1998)<br />
<br />
===Chinese Characters and the Information Age===<br />
<br />
Nowadays, with the continuous development of digitization, Chinese characters have been effectively imported into various electronic media. In a sense, Chinese characters in the electronic age are also facing reform, and there will be more advanced means to promote the role of Chinese characters in the electronic information age, so that they can better serve the public.<br />
Chinese characters are undoubtedly China's most beautiful and valuable asset, representing not only a national spirit, but also the roots of the Chinese nation, the soul of China. As Mr. Yu Guangzhong once said, as long as the soul of Cangjie remains intact, the image, the magnet-like centripetal force, is bound to exist, and the memories and hopes of our ancestors will have a new anchor.（Yi Lixin 2004）<br />
<br />
===Terms and expressions===<br />
<br />
1.Oracle Bone Inscriptions 甲骨文<br />
<br />
2.Bronze Inscriptions 金文<br />
<br />
3.Small seal characters 小篆<br />
<br />
4.Official script 隶书<br />
<br />
5.Regular script 楷书<br />
<br />
6.Cursive writing 草书<br />
<br />
7.Cang Jie 仓颉<br />
<br />
8.Clerical script 楷书<br />
<br />
9.Su Shi 苏轼<br />
<br />
10. Wang Xizhi 王羲之<br />
<br />
11.Ou Yangxun 欧阳询<br />
<br />
12.Yan Zhenqing 颜真卿<br />
<br />
13.Pictograms 象形<br />
<br />
14. Pictophonetic compounds 指事<br />
<br />
15.Ideograph 会意<br />
<br />
16.Logical aggregates 形声<br />
<br />
17.Associate transformation 转注<br />
<br />
18.Borrowing 假借<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. How many Chinese characters are there?<br />
<br />
2. How many letters are in the Chinese pinyin?<br />
<br />
3. How many formations of Chinese characters? What are they?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. According to the latest statics, there are nearly 91251 Chinese characters recorded .<br />
<br />
2. There are 26 letters in Chinese alphabet.<br />
<br />
3. Six formations are included in Chinese characters system, and they are Pictograms<br />
Pictophonetic compounds,Ideograph, Logical aggregates, Associate transformation,Borrowing<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
1.Wang Xianchun王显春. 汉字的起源[M]. 学林出版社, 2002.<br />
<br />
2.Liu Youxin刘又辛. "关于汉字发展史的几个问题(上)." 语文建设 12(1998):34-37.<br />
<br />
3.Boltz, William G. 2003. The origin and the development of the Chinese writing system. (American Oriental series), v. 78. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. ISBN 0940490188<br />
<br />
4.Chinese Characters, Chinese Culture and Chinese Mind . Yu Xinjia and Xue Ruijia, https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/12-Yuxin-Jia-Xuerui-Jia.pdf,2005.<br />
<br />
5.Yi Lixin伊立新. 论汉字与中国文化的相互影响[J]. 沈阳建筑大学学报(社会科学版), 2004, 6(001):58-60.<br />
<br />
6.Wang Enquan王恩全. 中国汉字的形成及演变规律之考辨[J]. 沈阳农业大学学报(社会科学版), 2006(03):551-553.<br />
7.Nie Yan聂焱. "论汉字造字法的思维模式." 湘南学院学报 03(2005):63-67+81.<br />
--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 12:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Gu dongfang<br />
<br />
==Handcraft - Chinese Knots - Guan Qinqing 管钦清 - MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center>管钦清，202070080586.</center><br />
===A.Chinese Knots===<br />
[[File:Chinese Knots.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Click [https://baike.so.com/doc/1207058-1276830.html]for original source.]]<br />
====1.A Brief Introduction about Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.It originally evolved from the sewing of the Paleolithic period, to the ritual memorial of the Han Dynasty, and then into today's decorative craft.The jade worn by people in the Zhou Dynasty was often decorated with Chinese knots, and there were also Chinese knot patterns on the bronzes of the Warring States Period.（Li Ku 2016，125）<br />
<br />
The Chinese knot continued to become a popular art in the Qing Dynasty. Now, Chinese knots are often used as interior decorations, gifts between relatives and friends and <br />
personal accessories. It is possessed of delicate and symmetrical appearance and accords with the conventions of Chinese traditional decorations and aesthetics, which <br />
earned the knot as its name.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002,38）<br />
<br />
====2.The Classification of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot(双钱结）,Good Luck Knot（吉祥<br />
结）,Chinese Button Knot（纽扣结）,Sauvastika Knot（万字结）,Oxalis Knot（酢浆草结）,Pan Chang Knot（盘长结）,Round Brocade Knot（团锦结）,Caisson Celling Knot（藻井结）,Cross Knot(十字结） and Ping Knot（平结）.（Li Ku 2016，125）<br />
<br />
Here, we mainly introduce three main Chinese knots,which are the Double Coin Knot,the Good Luck Knot and the Pan Chang Knot. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.The Double Coin Knot=====<br />
<br />
Ancient coins are closely related to a country’s history, culture,politics, and economy, and are regarded as treasures both at home and abroad. The Chinese people's views on coins are not limited on their prices but value, which can be seen in the auspicious characters and patterns cast on many ancient coins. Money in China not only represents the value of a certain currency, but also something of good luck. Every Chinese New Year's Eve, children can receive the so-called "luck money".（ Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，40） <br />
<br />
Therefore, for the Chinese people, money also has the meaning of eliminating and avoiding evil. Double Coin Knot is named after two bronze coins connecting together, which symbolizes "good things come in pairs". This knot is often used in weaving necklaces, belts and other accessories, and the combination of several Double Coin Knots can form beautiful patterns, such as clouds and Perfect Knots，etc. （Li Ku 2016，126）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.The Good Luck Knot=====<br />
<br />
As for the Good Luck Knot,it is an extension of the cross knot, and is also one of the ancient decorative knots, which means auspiciousness. The knitting method is simple.<br />
And the knot shape is beautiful,varied and widely used. When used alone, if a heavy object is hung, the knot is easy to deform, and it can be fixed with a shaping glue.（Wu Hongfang 2004,120）<br />
<br />
=====2.3.The Pan Chang Knot=====<br />
<br />
Pan Chang Knot is also a kind of Chinese knot. It symbolizes the highest realm of unity of mind and matter and eternal immortality. It represents the auspiciousness of the <br />
avenue and is therefore highly valued by Chinese people. Pan Chang (盘长） is a symbol of the origin of all things, and is one of the most important basic knots. It is <br />
often the main knot of many changing knots. Because the Chinese knot has the characteristics of close symmetry, it is easy to be liked by us in terms of its perception.（Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 2002，44）<br />
<br />
====3.The Knitting Method of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
The knitting of Chinese knots can be roughly divided into three categories: basic knots, variable knots, and combined knots. Their knitting technology requires a variety of basic knot knitting skills, and all have common knitting principles, which can be summarized into basic technique and combination technique. The basic technique is to knit with single lines, double lines or multiple lines, using the parallel or separation of the thread ends to make colorful knots. The combination technique means to use thread extension to flexibly combine various knots, so as to make a group of varied knots.（Xu Xing 2004,46）<br />
<br />
The final stage of learning knitting is the self-designing. When designing a set of beautiful knots, the most important thing is to determine its purpose and function, and then determine its size and shape, while considering the color matching and the appropriate use of accessories. As long as the decorations are used flexibly, andthe designer's artistic beauty and deep thoughts are poured into, the Chinese knot can fully express the beauty of traditional Chinese art.（Xu Xing 2004,47）<br />
<br />
====4.The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Knots====<br />
<br />
Chinese people love the Chinese knot because it embodies the cultural essence and national characteristics of the Chinese nation. The Chinese knot is a woven fabric of <br />
rope and thread.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". In addition, Chinese people are descendants of <br />
Dragons.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）<br />
<br />
Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of <br />
"knot", which means reunion and happiness. Many of the Chinese words composed of "结"（knot) that we usually see have beautiful meanings, such as 团结（unity）, 结交<br />
（making friends), and 永结同心（tie the knot),etc. "结"(knot) is also homonymous with "吉"（ausipiciousness), so people even think that "knot" is a symbol of good luck.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,44）<br />
<br />
====5.Comparisons between Chinese Knots and Cross Necklaces====<br />
<br />
=====5.1.Different Cultural Connotations=====<br />
<br />
From the above, we can see that the Chinese knot generally have many meanings, such as good luck, love, unity and so on. The cross necklace,however, is symbolic of <br />
Christianity. The cross, derived from the Latin "crux", means "fork".It was originally a cruel instrument of torture used to execute prisoners. It was popular in ancient <br />
Rome, the Persian Empire and Carthage. Later,cross evolved into a symbol of the Christianity due to Christ's death on the cross to redeem sinners.Therefore,such cross <br />
ornaments in the west as cross necknaces are usually used to represent love and salvation.（Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian 2014,45）<br />
<br />
=====5.2.Different Shapes=====<br />
<br />
Similarly, from the above we can also learn that Chinese knots have many shapes, and different shapes represent different meanings. The cross necklace can also have <br />
different shapes and sizes. Christians can hang a small cross on their chest to express their identity, while the large cross is a symbol of the bishop's authority.（Xu Xing 2004,47）<br />
<br />
====6.References====<br />
<br />
*Li Ku 李库. (2016). 符号学视角下的中国结解读 [The Analysis of Chinese Knots from the Perspective of Semiology ]. ''艺海'' Yi Hai (08) 125-126.<br />
<br />
*Li Lifang & Sun Jianjun 李立芳，孙建君. (2002). ''民间绳结'' [Folk Knots]. Wuhan: Hubei Fine Arts Publishing House 湖北美术出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Xing 许星. (2004). 路论中国结 [On the Chinese Knots]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (02) 46-47.<br />
<br />
*Wu Hongfang 邬红芳. (2004). 中国结的意象美学特征 [The Rhetorical-Beauty of Chinese Knots]. ''装饰'' Decoration (09) 120-121.<br />
<br />
*Wang Mizhu &Sun Sun& Qu Hongjian王眯珠,孙荪,曲洪建. (2014). 怀旧心理与创新意识对中国结的影响分析[The Analysis of the Impact on Chinese Knots from Reminiscence and Consciousness of Innovation ]. ''丝绸'' The Silk (11) 43-50.<br />
<br />
===B. Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Double Coin Knot 双钱结<br />
<br />
Good Luck Knot 吉祥结<br />
<br />
Chinese Button Knot 纽扣结<br />
<br />
Sauvastika Knot 万字结<br />
<br />
Oxalis Knot 酢浆草结<br />
<br />
Pan Chang Knot 盘长结<br />
<br />
Round Brocade Knot 团锦结<br />
<br />
Caisson Celling Knot 藻井结<br />
<br />
Cross Knot 十字结<br />
<br />
Ping Knot 平结<br />
<br />
tie the knot 永结同心<br />
<br />
luck money 压岁钱<br />
<br />
the bishop's identity 主教职权<br />
<br />
===C. Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What is the Chinese knot?<br />
<br />
2. Do you know the names of the main Chinese knots? What are they?<br />
<br />
3. What do "绳" and "结" mean in Chinese culture?--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:04, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.The Chinese knot is a hand-woven handicraft unique to China. The exquisiteness and wisdom displayed on it are just one aspect of the ancient Chinese civilization.<br />
<br />
2.There are ten main kinds of Chinese knots which are named according to the shape, purpose or meaning of the knot.They are Double Coin Knot,Good Luck Knot,Chinese Button Kno,Sauvastika Knot,Oxalis Knot,Pan Chang Knot,Round Brocade Knot,Caisson Celling Knot,Cross Knot and Ping Knot.<br />
<br />
3.In Chinese， "rope" (绳）and "god" （神）are homophonic, so the Chinese nation has a worship of "rope". Because the shape of "rope" is like a winding dragon, people also regard "rope" as a symbol of dragon. Chinese people also have their own unique understanding of "knot", which means reunion and happiness.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 07:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Literature, Chinese Mythology, Guirou, Barthelemy, 201921080010, Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
<br />
[[File:Chinese Mythology.jpg|thumb|right|Panku]]<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The Chinese’s life is full of mythological traditions such as, the creation of universe, science, literature, philosophy, dragons, tortoises, phoenixes, unicorns, birds, and flowering fruit trees etc. This myth is characterized by the interaction of the pros and cons, yin and yang, good and evil, light and dark, male and female, heaven and earth, strong and weak and so forth. Panku was an important figure in Chinese mythology, the first living being and the creator of universe in some versions of Chinese mythology.(Su Shuyang 2010, 2). In world mythology; every peoples have it own myths, different fairy tales, but there is some similarities in common.<br />
<br />
===A. Panku Created the World===<br />
<br />
In the beginning, the world didn’t exist; there wasn’t sky, earth, water, animals, birds, plants, human, in other word, the universe was empty. The force of universe was concentrated inside a mysterious egg. This egg, after growing many years, it becoming a big form of ball and finally give birth to Panku. Panku, who was deeply sleeping in peace in his eggshell for eighteen thousand years, finally awaken by the chaos of the exterior movement and try to calm down. Therefore, the sky and the earth were created. His body was well-formed with giant muscular and the size of his body was about ninety thousand li (about thirty thousand miles), (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).<br />
<br />
At that moment the sky and the earth was very close and Panku couldn’t fully stand on his limbs, then Panku pushed the sky with his two hands to farther away from the sky. As time was passing, the sky and earth become farther from each other and the size of Panku increasing within. The size of Panku became enormous, 90,000 "li" (45,000 kilometer) was the high distance between the sky and the earth, that is why today we talk about “ Nine- Layer Sky.” For many centuries Panku pushed the sky with all the forces of his body to avoid the chaos, hence, he cried for help but no one helped him because he was alone in the world. He struggled for ten thousand years until the sky and earth was completely separated into the forces of yin (dark) and yang (light). Slowly, he became weaker and older, and then he felt down on the ground and his body became a mighty crash. Thus, his right eye became the moon and his left eye became the sun; his head and limbs became mountains; his blood vessels became seas and rivers, his flesh became fertile lands; his hair became trees, grass, flowers; his teeth and bones became treasures (gold, metals, silver, copper); his sweat and tear represent the rain; his voice represent thunder and lightning and his breath represent winds and clouds. Finally; he finished his work, Panku, the creator of the world was dead and left behind him a landscape (Su Shuyang 2010, 4).<br />
<br />
===B. NuWa Created Human Beings===<br />
<br />
[[File:Picture 2.jpg|thumb|right|Fushi and Nuwa]]<br />
<br />
Nuwa, was created out of earth from Panku flesh, was a goddess in Chinese mythology or viewed as old grandmother with a body of snake and human face. She was the creator and ancestor of human beings who appeared in the world after Pangu’s death (Su Shuyang 2010, 5).<br />
<br />
As she was the only human living beings in the world, by the passing time, she felt lonely and decided to create human to her image in order to feel more comfortable to her world. Thus, she was seated down thinking about her new project of creating human beings and finally she got an idea. Then she created human beings by kneading mud with human forms and then these “mud figures” became alive. They started walking, speaking, sing, dancing, laughing and endowed with a human beings capacity. Nuwa was very happy with her news creatures who surrounding him by crying our Mum. Then, she continued to create days and nights during a long period until she got tired. Hence, they were spread out everywhere; on the mountains, on the hills, near the rivers, on the straight spaces etc. During a long period of years, Nuwa and her creatures were living together without any particular distinction about man and woman and any marriage. As time was passing; people were getting old and dying one after other, so, Nuwa started to worry about her offspring, what the world will be after all the men would have died. Nuwa then divided men and women and taught them marriage and how to reproduce between couples in order the lineage of mankind will never end. She gave her best wishes and advises to human beings, and since then, people continue to marry and give birth.(Su Shuyang 2010, 5, 6).<br />
<br />
===C. Fushi Taught the People=== <br />
<br />
In Chinese mythology, it is generally said that the rulers were half-gods and half humans and they could change their shapes of state, either in animal or in human being. According to Chinese myths; the rulers didn’t die, when their time on the earth expired they ascended to the heavens to have a rest. Fushi was the first who taught to people how to survival on the earth such as: hunting, using fire, writing etc. (Irene Dea Collier,2001, 33). In some stories Fushi was the husband of Nuwa, whereas in some other it wasn’t. Anyway they are an important figures of Chinese civilization .<br />
<br />
Fushi noticed that the new world (people) couldn’t support to the difficulties of the life and decided to help them thanks to his supernatural powers. He taught them how to make a fish net by twisting plants fibers and form ropes. With these ropes, he wove a fish net to fish fishes in water and feed people, and with these ropes also people could across mountain peaks to search food. Then, before people were eating raw meat or fish but Fushi showed them how to use fire by twirling two willow sticks together. Moreover, Fushi taught them many things including agriculture, breeding, security, music, healing and many else. As time was passing; Fushi getting old, and he knew that he could not live for ever , then he decided to create a system of writing "trigrams", in order people can learn and remember about his teachings for better life. He designed some kind of marks onto turtle shells, bamboo sticks and animal bones which became later words and numbers. This "trigrams" was also a mean to interpret future and consult oracle about the right ways to follow (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 35, 36).<br />
<br />
Finally, Fushi gave his last gift (music) in order people can live in harmony and peace after him. So, Fushi taught them how to make musical instrument and use it, a "pipa" (lute).That is why, music has a great importance in Chinese history. Each time we play music, it reminds us to Fushi great teachings. Fushi’s time took end on the earth and finally he ascended to heavens hoping that his disciples (humans) live in peace (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 39).<br />
<br />
===D. Water War===<br />
<br />
Territorial conquest or extension of a territory was a preoccupation of each ruler since the beginning of the world and still now is one of the sources of conflicts in the world. So, Gong, god of water fought against Zurong, god of fire to extend his territory. Historically, both have terrible tempers and described as a very big giants with different shapes, Gong shown with a snake’s body and a human face with red hair. Meanwhile Zurong shown with a massive human body with broad shoulders, red skin, and a red beard (Irene Dea Collier 2001,44).<br />
<br />
Gong poked the earth with bouts of rain and floods which caused damages included on people, houses, animals, trees and many others living beings. People and others gods asked him to stop destroying but Gong remained pitiless and severe to their inquiries. Zurong, god of fire who ruled the earth in peace before Gong, finally intervened to stop him. So Zurong challenged Gong to regain the control of the earth. Firstly, they started to wrestle on the sky for many days, as both of them were using their supernatural powers, the sky shook with thunder, and lightning flashed across the sky. Then, they got down in the earth to continue fighting but fortunately Gong and his army were defeated and all the people and gods rejoiced Gong’s defeat. Since then, the world is full of conflicts and insecurities (Irene Dea Collier 2001, 48, 49).<br />
<br />
In summary, like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has been recorded in oral form in literature from various regional and cultural traditions. China is the home of many mythological traditions which involves the creation of world, gods, deities, supernatural powers, culture, people, houses, cooking writing, ancestors etc.<br />
<br />
===E. Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Chinese Mythology 中国神话<br />
<br />
Panku 盤古<br />
<br />
Yin/Yang 陰陽 / 阴阳<br />
<br />
Nuwa 女媧<br />
<br />
Fushi 伏羲<br />
<br />
Water War 水战<br />
<br />
===F. Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Why an egg a good symbol for the beginning of the world?<br />
<br />
2. Why Nuwa decided to create human beings?<br />
<br />
3. What did Fushi taught to people?<br />
<br />
4. What was the cause of Gong and Zurong’s war and who won?<br />
<br />
===G. Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Because egg is the symbol of life and many creatures are born from the eggs, even its physical form is round like the world and it contains necessary elements to create a life.<br />
<br />
2. Firstly, for companionship and secondly to guarantee her offspring by teaching them the importance of marriage and how to feed and raise their children. She also wanted to humans to live independently without help of god.<br />
<br />
3. He taught to people how to live conveniently such as: fishing, how to make fire, cooking food and meat with fire, oracle consulting, and how to make and use lute.<br />
<br />
4. Gong wanted to extend his territory which resulted to water damage and Zurong intervened and defeated him by wrestling.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
* Su Shuyang. (2010).''CHINA: Insight Traditions and Culture''.(Youth Edition). DOLPHIN BOOKS China International Publishing Group. (2010)-2-4-5-6.<br />
<br />
* Irene Dea Collier. (2001). "Chinese Mythology". Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. (2001)-33-35, 36-39-44-48-49.<br />
<br />
* https://pic.17qq.com/uploads/ijbphegbibz.jpeg<br />
<br />
* https://www.confuciusinstitute.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Pangu-lifting-heaven-picture.jpg--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 08:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gods and Immortals - Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Chinese gods and immortals===<br />
<br />
====Chinese mythology system====<br />
<br />
Chinese mythology is a mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature, including many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.(Lü & Gong 2014, p. 71 )<br />
<br />
Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion. There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Chinese mythology is a myth in a broad sense, which combines the Ancient mythology system, the Taoist mythology system, and the Buddhist mythology system. Among them, ancient mythology is not very systematic, and most of its records are fragmented and scattered; Taoist mythology has its own system; Buddhist mythology originated from India.(Yang, An & Turner 2005, p.4)<br />
<br />
The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths. It begins in ancient times (pre-Xia dynasty). There is not a book specializes in recording all of those myths in history, not even being an integrated system like Western mythology. The Ancient myths are written in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Songs, the Songs of Chu, Zhuangzi, Huai Nan Zi and other books, and can be divided into four categories: the creation myths (Pangu Separating the World, Goddess Nüwa Greating Human Beings), myths of heroes (Hou Yi Shooting Down the Suns), myths about Tribal war (the Battle of Zhuolu), and myths about human and nature(Kuafu Chasing the Sun, Great Yu Who Controlled the Waters).1987.(Bai 1987, pp. 34-40)<br />
<br />
Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Through time Taoist Theology created its own deities. Similar to deities of Hinduistic beliefs these deities attributed certain qualities. Deities who take part in the Dao are arranged in a hierarchy. The supreme powers are three, the Three Pure Ones, and represent the centre of the cosmos and its two modalities of manifestation (yin and yang). The main classics of Taoism include Zhuangzi and many other scriptures. It creates many gods and immortals in their texts and gives most of them official posts, showing Chinese ancestor's emphasis on practical application. For example, Tudishen（土地公）, the God of the Soil and the Ground, is a tutelary deity of a locality; Sanxing（三星）, Three Stars, is a cluster of three astral gods of well-being, including Fuxing, Prosperity Star, the god of happiness, Luxing, Firmness Star, the god of firmness and success in life and examinations, and Shòuxing, Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life.(Olson & Stuart 2002, pp. 27-28)<br />
<br />
At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China and merged with the local culture, creating many new myths. Buddhism thinks that everything is equal, and there is no hierarchy, but in fact, there are quite differences according to the level of their Buddhist understanding and practice. The one with the highest practice is the Buddha. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni, is the most familiar Buddha to Chinese people. Amitabha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha and the principal buddha in Pure Land Buddhism. Bodhisattva has a lower level of Buddhism practice than Buddha. Guanyin is the Chinese translation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. She is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity" with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her.(Buddhism, p37)<br />
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====神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān====<br />
<br />
Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between 神 shén, 帝 dì and 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". dì, sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. During the time of Zhou dynasty to the Warring States, dì is used to refer to those who have great moral cultivation and merits. And then it becomes a term of emperor since Qin dynasty. The latter term 仙 xiān refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".(Hu, 2020)<br />
<br />
There is another difference between the Chinese gods and immortals. The gods usually have their own position and take charge of different things in Daoist theology. While immortals, unlike gods, have no official positions. It is that certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine xiān. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers and always live leisurely. So since ancient times, many people are longing to become an immortal and live a carefree life.(Fowler & Jeanine 2005, pp. 200-201)<br />
<br />
====Eight immortals====<br />
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The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals". Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Shang Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 40-45)<br />
<br />
The Immortals are Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Zhang Guolao (張果老), Lan Caihe (藍采和), Li Tieguai (李鐵拐), Zhongli Quan (鍾離權), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble. Among them, Lü Dongbin is considered to be their leader. Unlike many other Taoist gods and immortals, the Eight immortals all come from the human world and have colorful and varied experiences before they become immortals. Their imagines that are entirely different from the uaual scared deities make them very popular with people. They are not born as immortals. Among them have general, royal members, Taoist or even beggar, etc. All of them have certain shortcoming like Lü Dongbin is frivolous and Tieguai Li has the problem of alcoholism.(Yang,Deng & Wang 1987, pp. 45-50) <br />
<br />
The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases and also the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. There is a famous saying comes from the myth of them-- "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通) indicating the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.(Little, Stephen 2000,pp. 313, 319–334)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
immortals 仙 <br />
<br />
mythology 神话，神话学<br />
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cosmology 宇宙论，宇宙观 <br />
<br />
monolithic 整体（式）的<br />
<br />
the Battle of Zhuolu 涿鹿之战<br />
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pantheistic 泛神论的 <br />
<br />
polytheistic 多神论的<br />
<br />
Three Pure Ones 三清<br />
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anthropomorphic 人格化的<br />
<br />
tutelary 守护神 <br />
<br />
deity 神<br />
<br />
Buddha 佛 <br />
<br />
Shakyamuni 释迦牟尼<br />
<br />
Amitabha 阿弥陀佛 <br />
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Amitāyus 无量寿佛<br />
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celestial 天的 <br />
<br />
Bodhisattva 菩萨 <br />
<br />
Pure Land 极乐世界 <br />
<br />
vessels 法器<br />
<br />
Covert Eight Immortals 暗八仙 <br />
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Taoist 道家的，道士<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What are the topics of the Ancient mythology?<br />
<br />
2. What are the differences among shén, dì and xiān?<br />
<br />
3. What do the Eight immortals represent respectively?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1.The Ancient mythologies are myths about the origin of man or the creation myths，which can be divided into four categories--the creation myths, myths of heroes, myths about Tribal war, and myths about human and nature.<br />
<br />
2. shén and dì corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity". The latter term 仙 xiān , refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".<br />
<br />
3.Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Zhang Guolao, Lan Caihe, Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi and Cao Guojiu are representing man, woman, the old, the young, the poor, the humble, the rich and the noble respectively.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng. (2014). ''Marxism and Religion.'' Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill.<br />
<br />
Yang, Lihui; An, Deming; Turner, Jessica Anderson (2005). ''Handbook of Chinese Mythology''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Bai Yang. (1987). ''Chinese Huamn History''. Time Literature & Art Press.<br />
<br />
Olson, Stuart Alve. (2002). ''Qigong Teachings of a Taoist Immortal: The Eight Essential Exercises of Master Li Ching-Yun''. Bear & Company.<br />
<br />
Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism <br />
<br />
Hu Yanan.(2020). ''From Gods to Immortals: A Research on the forming factors of God belief during Pre-Qin Dynasty'' [D].Harbin Normal University.<br />
<br />
Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). ''An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality''. Sussex Academic Press.<br />
<br />
Yang Erzeng, Deng Zhimo, Wang Xiangxu. (1987). ''A Full Story Book of Eight Immortals''. Spring Breeze Literature & Are Press.<br />
<br />
Little, Stephen (2000). ''Taoism and the Arts of China.'' The Art Institute of Chicago.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Literature, Tang and Song - Guo Lu 郭露 202070080588 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Classical Prose Movement of late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
“The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, also known as the Classical Prose Movement, is a movement with the style reform as its surface and Confucianism Renaissance as its depth.” (Li Shufang 2003, 1-3) The word “Gu Wen” was first introduced by Han Yu, it indicates the prose in the pre-Qin period and Han Dynasty. This movement took clarity and precision as priorities, and it stood against the florid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular starting from the Han Dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and was criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content. Therefore, Han Yu, together with Liu Zongyuan, launched this movement to make a difference so that they can revive Confucianism and promote their political thoughts. This movement had a tendency to follow the spirit of pre-Qin prose rather than to imitate it directly. People used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 1)<br />
<br />
====Development====<br />
<br />
The Classical Prose Movement went through three stages. The first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only writers but also theorists, forming the basis of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so that the movement could achieve further development and then revive the Confucianism. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-18)<br />
[suggestion:(Here, "Both" can be replaced by "They both".)Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement……]<br />
<br />
However, after the death of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting the importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed people to use pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 59-61)<br />
<br />
After that, Ouyang Xiu once again advocated the classical prose in the Song Dynasty. As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak during that period. This movement is consequently also called the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. (Song Juan 2005, 62-65) <br />
<br />
====Representatives====<br />
<br />
'''1.Han Yu'''<br />
<br />
Han Yu (768–824), courtesy name Tuizhi, is also known for his art names Han Changli or Chang Li Xian Sheng. He was born in present-day Mengzhou, Henan, he was a Chinese prose writer, poet, and philosopher who influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Due to his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, he is described as “Comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe”. Meanwhile, he is often considered to be among China’s finest prose writers. Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun ranked him first in the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song"，and Su Shi, another Chinese poet, once praised that “His prose reversed the literary decline of eight dynasties”. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 15-17)<br />
<br />
Han Yu wrote a large volume of works, which includes over 700 poems and nearly 400 proses. He is especially famous for his ''On Teachers'', which says “A teacher is one who passes on the truth, imparts knowledge and solves puzzles”. This persuasive prose is short but well structured, and it has a strong appeal to people, which also has a positive impact on youth education. (Fan Aiju, Li Wei 2014, 124-125)<br />
<br />
'''2.Liu Zongyuan'''<br />
<br />
Liu Zongyuan (773–819), courtesy name Zihou, is also known by his art names He Dong Xian Sheng or Liu He Dong, was a Chinese litterateur, philosopher, politician and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. And Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, they were called Han Liu. Besides that, he has been regarded as one of the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song”, which also includes Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu. Liu's best-known travel pieces are the ''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou''. And one of his most famous poems is "Jiangxue". (Yang Shengli 2020, 42-44)<br />
<br />
'''3.Ouyang Xiu'''<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), courtesy name Yong Shu, is also known by his art names Zuiweng and Liu Yi Jushi. He was a Chinese essayist, historian, poet, calligrapher and even a politician of the Song Dynasty. Being a much-celebrated writer, both among his contemporaries and in subsequent centuries. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu was in charge of the writing of the ''New Book of Tang'', and he also wrote the ''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' independently, the only book in the Twenty-Four Histories to have been written in private by a single author. As a poet, he was a noted writer of both the shi and ci genres. But it was his prose writings like ''Zuiweng Tingji'' that won him the greatest acclaim. The poem's most well-known line is: The Old Toper cares not for the wine, his interest lies in the landscape, an idiom still used in modern Chinese to describe someone with an ulterior motive. (Nie Yongqing 2007, 56-57)<br />
<br />
Except for Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan and Ouyang Xiu, there were many other representatives of this movement. For example, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong and Wang Anshi also made great contributions to the Classical Prose Movement. Considering their influences, they were also listed as Eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 82-83)<br />
<br />
====Masterworks====<br />
<br />
Under the influence of the Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, there appeared a large volume of masterpieces, which have a far-reaching influence on later ages. Except for the works of Han Yu, Liu Zong Yuan and Ouyang Xiu, other works like ''Shang Zhongyong'' written by Wang Anshi, ''On Jia Yi'' and ''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' by Su Shi, were also considered the representative works of this movement. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 73-78)<br />
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====Influence====<br />
<br />
The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty is a milestone during the development of Chinese ancient prose, it has a profound influence on the later schools of literature like Tang-Song School in the Ming Dynasty and Tong Cheng school in the Qing Dynasty. Besides that, it also helped to lay a solid foundation of prose in China and acted as a fine example for later scholars. (Qian Dongfu 1979, 85-86)<br />
<br />
====Terms and Expressions====<br />
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The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty 唐宋八大家<br />
<br />
Classical Prose Movement 古文运动<br />
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''Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou'' 《永州八记》<br />
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''On Teachers'' 《师说》<br />
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''New Book of Tang'' 《新唐书》<br />
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''Historical Records of the Five Dynasties'' 《新五代史》<br />
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''Zuiweng Tingji'' 《醉翁亭记》<br />
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''Shang Zhongyong'' 《伤仲永》<br />
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''On Jia Yi'' 《贾谊论》<br />
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''First Ode to the Red Cliff'' 《赤壁赋》<br />
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====Questions====<br />
<br />
1. Who were the first promoters of the Classical Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
2. What does the Classical Prose Movement mean?<br />
<br />
3. What's political and religious purposes of the Classical Prose Movement?<br />
<br />
====Answers====<br />
<br />
1. The first promoters of this movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan.<br />
<br />
2. The Classical Prose Movement refers to the cultural reform movement which promotes Gu Wen and opposes pianwen in late Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty.<br />
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3. The reason why Confucious scholars promoted this movement is that they wanted to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Besides that, this movement is also an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
* Fan Aiju, Li Wei 范爱菊, 李伟. (2014). 唐代文豪韩愈的文学造诣 [The literary achievements of Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty] 兰台世界 ''Lantai World'' (21) 124-125.<br />
<br />
* Li Shufang. (2003). 古文运动的社会背景 [The Social Background of Sport of Ancient Chinese Prose]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学 (12) 1-3.<br />
<br />
* Nie Yongqing 聂永清. (2007). 重读欧阳修 [Rethinking of Ouyang Xiu] 当代江西 ''Dang Dai Jiangxi'' (02) 56-57.<br />
<br />
* Qian Dongfu 钱东父. (1979). 唐宋古文运动 [''The Classical Prose Movement of the late Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty''] Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
* Song Juan 宋娟. (2005). 古文运动、科举与“唐宋八大家” [Movement of the Ancient Chinese Prose, Imperial Examination and “Eight Great Writers in Tang and Song Dynasty”]. Mudanjiang: Mudanjiang Normal University 牡丹江师范学院 (02) 62-65.<br />
<br />
* Yang Shengli 杨胜利. (2020). “河东先生”柳宗元 [Liu Zongyuan:He Dong Xian Sheng]. 支部建设 Zhi Bu Jian She (08) 42-44.<br />
<br />
* Zhou Zhenfu 周振甫. (1996). 唐宋八大家论 [Talking of Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song]. Shanghai: Zhong Hua Book Company 中华书局 (06) 35-38.<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 06:52, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The tradition of Red Envelope and Lucky Money - HA, THI THU HANG - 201921080008 - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==<br />
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[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets-design.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Red Enverlop]]<br />
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===The Chinese Red Envelope and Lucky Money Tradition===<br />
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In Chinese and other East and Southeast Asian societies, Red Envelopes, also called Red Packets, Lucky Money, or ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ) in Chinese, ''Li shi'' / ''Lìxì'' in Vietnamese are popular monetary gift given during holidays or special occasions or festivals such as weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc in China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and some other Asian countries, especially widely seen during the Lunar New Year Festival. During the Lunar New Year, the adult, parents and grandparents gift with the red envelops for kids, which have money stuffed into. It is a traditional way to wish good luck and share blessings.<br />
<br />
The Lucky Money tradition began in the Han Dynasty. Rather than real money, they were small collectibles in the form of coins to ward off evil spirits. Auspicious phrases and symbols were engraved onto the surface. "worldwide peace" ( 天下太平 / ''Tiān xià tài píng''), “longevity and fortune” ( 千秋万岁 / ''Qiān qiū wàn suì''), dragons and phoenixes were common.<br />
<br />
These coins were tied together with red string. The practice transitioned to be wrapped in Red Paper and now, put into Red Envelopes.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Legend====<br />
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In China, during the Qin Dynasty, the elderly would thread coins with a red string. There was a kind of little demon called ''Sui'' ( 祟 ) in ancient times. Whenever it is on New Year's Eve, it will appear quietly, touching the head of a sleeping child. The child who was being touched will be scared and cry, and also will have a headache. Therefore, in order to prevent against the sui, people in the past did not dare to sleep on New Year's Eve, and all the lights were called ''Shou Sui'' ( 守祟 ).<br />
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One tale of the folklore, once upon a time, there was a couple who were over 50 years old had just given birth to a little boy. In that Lunar New Year, 8 fairies visited their house and knew that there would be a monster coming to hurt him. To protect the baby, the 8 faires transformed into 8 coins which were then wrapped in red cloth and laid beside the boy when he was sleeping. Thanks to these coins, which were the fairies, the boy was unharmed by the monster. The old couple was so thankful and gradually everyone in the village knew about the stories. Since then, when Lunar New Year comes, people will give children "red paper wrapped copper money" with a belief that the money will protect children from being harmed.<br />
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There are also other legends about this custom related to the son of Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty - China and the Qin Dynasty. But in general, the New Year's blessing of the lucky money all originates with the meaning of giving happy money to children, wishing them to grow up their money so they can pass the new age with good things and luck.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Tradition====<br />
<br />
The Chinese custom of Lucky Money is called ''Hóngbāo'' ( 红包 ). Chinese people really like red, so the Lucky Money is always red, symbolizing luck and happiness. The Red Envelope is called ''Yāsuìqián'' ( 压岁钱 ), which means "suppressing ghosts money". Those who receive a Red Envelope are wished another safe and pea. Sending Red Envelopes is a way to send good wishes another safe and peaceful year, and luck (as well as money). The amount of money in the Chinese Lucky Money must avoid the number 4 ( 四 / ''si'') and be sealed - that means no 4, 40, or 400 amounts - as the pronunciation of four in Chinese sounds like the word for death ( 死/ ''si''). However, amounts including the number 8 ( 八 / ''ba'') will bring good luck and prosperity ( 发财 / ''fa'').<br />
<br />
There are rules on how to properly receive an Envelope. Traditionally, children would kneel to receive their ''Hóngbāo'' from older family members, and this is still practiced in some areas of China. Red Envelopes are also always given and received with both hands, and should never be opened immediately and in the presence of the present-giver. After receiving the Lucky Money, the children have to put it all under the pillow after about a week to open it. The meaning of this is for the Lucky Money to protect the kids from the bad things that can happen in the new year. This is also the source of the traditional Chinese Lucky Money.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Alipay and WeChat Red Envelope'''<br />
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[[File:chinese-new-year-red-pockets.jpg|300px|thumb|Right|Red Envelope - How much to give who - [[https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]]]]<br />
<br />
Moving on from the traditional Red Envelope, in the 21st century, many people exchange digital Red Envelopes instead of the traditional paper ones. These are virtual packets of very real cash, transferred directly to friends' and family's smartphones. Users can even send digital ''Hóngbāo'' to their favorite celebrities using apps such as Alipay, WeChat and the Weibo Red Envelope. WeChat Red Packet is an online money transfer with a colorful message via WeChat (a messaging Chinese app). In recent years, it has become popular among young people to send "Red Envelopes" via WeChat as a greeting. It has become a new way to greet friends or relatives during the Chinese New Year period.<br />
<br />
While the tradition centers on children, Red Envelopes are given to friends, family, colleagues and many other relatives - and different amounts of money are customary for each relation. For example, parents and grandparents get the most, but employees and even casual acquaintances can expect a Red Envelope.<br />
<br />
====Outside of China====<br />
<br />
The similar customs have been adopted throughout Southeast Asia and many other countries with sizable populations of Chinese descent. Each country has different ways of Lucky Money and changes over time, but the basic custom of Lucky Money is to want to send wishes of peace to all relatives and friends in the New Year.<br />
<br />
[[File:LunarNewYearinVietnam.jpg|250px|thumb|Right|Lunar New Year: ''Lì xì'' in Vietnam]]<br />
In Vietnam, Lucky Money is called ''Lì xì/Tiền mừng tuổi'' and very typical. On the first day of the Lunar New Year - one of the great holidays of the year, both adults and babies wear new clothes to celebrate the New Year relative. After that, the adults will give Lucky Money to the children with the message of good luck, good care and good study. Today, the tradition of Lucky Money in Vietnam is also expanded in the direction that children give Lucky Money to celebrate the age of grandparents and parents. This is a human custom that is increasingly promoted by the Vietnamese people.<br />
<br />
[[File:Otoshidama.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Otoshidama'' in Japan]]<br />
In Japan, Lucky Money is called ''Otoshidama'' (お 年 玉). Unlike other countries, the amount of Japanese Lucky Money depends on the child's age, the relationship of the family. ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes are usually white in color, not as common in red as other countries. The special thing about the Japanese Red Envelopes is that the envelopes are always sealed, symbolizing the privacy, not packaging. Moreover, the name of the person receiving the Lucky Money will be written on the Red Envelope to show respect for the recipient. The message of each ''Otoshidama'' Red Envelopes is a wish for a warm, peaceful and lucky New Year.<br />
<br />
[[File:Sabae.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''Sabae'' in Korea]]<br />
In Korea, Lucky Money is called ''Sabae''. On the New Year's day, children in traditionally dressed families perform the ritual of bowing to their seniors to show gratitude for birth and nurturing. After this ceremony, the children will receive Lucky Money together with wishes for health and peace in the New Year. The Lucky Money in Korea is more diverse than other countries, not only with money but also gold, pearls, gems, etc.<br />
<br />
[[File:Green Envelope-giving.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Green Envelope-giving'']]<br />
The Lucky Money tradition has also crossed cultural and religious boundaries, and ''Green Envelope-giving'' has even become a practice during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Fitr across Southeast Asia. It is also widely practiced by the Chinese and Southeast Asian diaspora across the world.--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
Lucky Money 利市/ Lì shì<br />
<br />
Red Envelope 红包/ Hóngbāo<br />
<br />
Worldwide Peace 天下太平/ Tiān xià tài píng<br />
<br />
Longevity and Fortune 千秋万岁/ Qiān qiū wàn suì<br />
<br />
Suppressing Ghosts Money/ Suppressing Sui Money 压岁钱/ Yā suì qián<br />
<br />
Sui 祟<br />
<br />
Shou Sui 守祟<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Do you know the origin of giving Lunar New Year's Lucky Money to children?<br />
<br />
2. Is the Lucky Money tradition exist in other countries than China?<br />
<br />
3. What are the rules on giving-receiving Red Envelopes?<br />
<br />
4. On what occasions people giving-receiving Red Envelopes?<br />
<br />
5. Do you ever receive a Red Envelope? On what occasion?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. It began in the Han Dynasty and to protect children from being harmed.<br />
<br />
2. Yes. It is very polupar in Vietnam (''Lìxì''), Japan (''Otoshidama''), Korea (''Sabae''), and some other Southeast Asian countries.<br />
<br />
3. The giving amount of money must avoid the number 4 that sounds like the word of death in Chinese. The children, after receiving the Red Envelope, do not open it immediatedly and in the presence of the present-giver, but have to put it under the pillow after about a week to open it.<br />
<br />
4. Red Envelopes are most commonly associated with New Year, but they also turn up as part of many other occasions as a way of sharing good luck and blessings, like births, weddings, graduation, senior people's birthday parties or the birthday of a child, visit a newborn baby, etc.<br />
<br />
5. Yes. Red Envelope, or Lucky Money, or ''Lìxì'' is very typical in the Lunar New Year in my country Vietnam.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Red Envelope[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_envelope]<br />
<br />
Fefe Ho - Red Pockets[https://chinesenewyear.net/red-pockets/]<br />
<br />
Cindy Tang - Red Envelopes/Packets (Hongbao) - Amount, Symbols and How to Give [https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/festivals/red-envelop.htm]<br />
<br />
Chinese Red Envelope [https://www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/holidays/new-year/red-envelope.htm]--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Calendar, The 24 Solar Terms - He Changqi 何长琦 202070080589 MTI==<br />
<br />
===1. The Orgin and Development of The 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
"The 24 solar terms" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar, with a profound history in China. Created by ancient Chinese when observing the annual movement of the sun, the twenty-four solar system is seen as a system of time knowledge and the agricultural guideline. It originated in the Yellow River valley, and is the result of people's observation, exploration and summary of astronomy, meteorology, and weather, which is an excellent cultural heritage created by the ancient Chinese people. （Wang Jiahua 2019）<br />
<br />
By the late Western Zhou Dynasty, people had already measured the first four solar terms: Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox. Afterwards, with the improvement of measurement technology and the further strengthening of people's understanding of the laws of nature in the Warring States period, the complete 24 solar terms were basically formed. During the Qin and Han dynasties, a complete system was perfected and formed into today's complete 24 Solar Terms system.（Wang Jiahua 2019）<br />
<br />
===2. The Definition and Classification of the 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
“The twenty-four solar term” is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
"The 24 solar term" is a unique phenomenon on traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with 24 segments proportionally distributed through 12 months. (Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season,phenology and climate.(Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox,Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water,Grain Rain,Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold, and Greater Cold.(Yuan Jixi 2016,34-35)<br />
<br />
===3.Folklore of the 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
The folklore of the 24 solar terms is divided into three aspects: festival folklore, lifestyle customs and food customs. Festive customs such as the "whipping of the spring bull" at the beginning of spring and the "tailing festival" at the end of the cold season.(Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020) Almost every festival has its own special food customs, such as dumplings on the winter solstice and noodles on the summer solstice, as well as biting and tasting spring at the beginning of spring. Following the traditional concept of "the unity of heaven and man, in accordance with the four seasons", the 24 solar terms have led to a wealth of health practices, such as eating liver in spring, drinking water in summer, etc. <br />
<br />
These activities can be broadly summarised as follows: worshipping the gods in response to the times of the year, honouring the ancestors and maintaining family ties, eliminating evil and seeking peace, and relaxing and entertaining. Take the Beginning of Spring as an example, it is said that the egg can be set upright on the first day of the Start of Spring, Spring Equinox day and Autumn Equinox day. It is believed that if someone can make the egg stand on the first day of Start of Spring, he will have good luck in the future. In many parts of China, people observe the custom of "biting the spring" on the first day of Start of Spring. They eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots. Besides, People in China began holding a special ceremony on the first day of Start of Spring about 3,000 years ago. They made sacrifices to Gou Mang, the god of Spring, who is in charge of agriculture. By the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), greeting spring had become an important folk activity. (He Yannan, Zou Yating 2020)<br />
<br />
===4.Importance and Values of the 24 Solar Terms===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Importance in Ancient Times====<br />
<br />
The 24 solar terms are a creation of traditional farming culture, and their production, development and dissemination have adapted to the economic production methods and social needs in the farming era. They have played an important role in the life and work of traditional Chinese people. (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
<br />
Firstly, the 24 solar terms are the basic time indicators of agricultural production activities in ancient times, which is also the most basic function and value of the 24 solar terms. Agricultural production is an economic activity carried out by humans according to natural rhythms and the laws of crop growth. The basic requirement of the agricultural production is to keep track of the agricultural time, which means that "if the agricultural time is not violated, there will be sufficient grain supply." (Mencius - Liang Huiwang). (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms were also regarded as important time points in the daily life of the people in ancient times. Thirdly, for the ancient ancestors, the 24 solar terms were not just a time system, but a much more colourful connotation of life, and an important manifestation and part of their colourful lives. (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
For example, the "Four Beginnings"(四立)-- the Beginning of Spring, Beginning of Summer, Beginning of Autumn, Beginning of Winter-- have always been important festivals in history. At these festivals, the emperors would lead their courtiers to the eastern, southern, western and northern gates of the capital to hold ceremonies to welcome the arrival of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The winter solstice, summer solstice and Qingming Festival are still important traditional festivals today, especially Tomb Sweeping Festival. Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival are known as China's four traditional festivals. (Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Values in Modern Society====<br />
<br />
<br />
In 2016, the 24 solar terms was included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List and became one of the most vivid cultural symbols for strengthening the cultural confidence of the Chinese nation and enhancing the cultural cohesion of the Chinese nation. (Ding Yiming, Chang He 2020)<br />
<br />
It still has its practical values in modern society. Firstly, as a time-honoured knowledge system with a long history and a customary tradition rich in colourful activities, the 24 solar terms has profound spiritual and cultural connotations, such as respecting nature, adapting to the time of the day, venerating ancestors, filial piety and respect for the elderly, and being good neighbours and friends. Therefore, it is one of the important components of excellent Chinese traditional culture.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the 24 solar terms can accurately reflect the rhythm and rules of nature and the harmonious relationship between man and nature.(Wang Jiahua 2019) <br />
<br />
Lastly, the 24 solar terms are not only a time system, but also a living tradition full of rich connotations, which is an important part of people's lives.(Wang Jiahua 2019)<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
the Beginning of Spring 立春<br />
<br />
Beginning of Autumn 立秋<br />
<br />
Rain Water 雨水 <br />
<br />
End of Heat 处暑<br />
<br />
Insects Awakening 惊蛰 <br />
<br />
White Dew 白露<br />
<br />
Spring Equinox 春分 <br />
<br />
Autumnal Equinox 秋分<br />
<br />
Fresh Green 清明 <br />
<br />
Cold Dew 寒露<br />
<br />
Grain Rain 谷雨 <br />
<br />
First Frost 霜降 <br />
<br />
Beginning of Summer 立夏 <br />
<br />
Beginning of Winter 立冬<br />
<br />
Lesser Fullness 小满 <br />
<br />
Light Snow 小雪<br />
<br />
Grain in Ear 芒种 <br />
<br />
Heavy Snow 大雪<br />
<br />
Summer Solstice 夏至<br />
<br />
Winter Solstice 冬至<br />
<br />
Lesser Heat 大暑<br />
<br />
Lesser Cold 小寒<br />
<br />
Greater Heat 立春 <br />
<br />
Greater Cold 大寒<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.1.What are the first four solar terms measured by ancient Chinese people?<br />
<br />
2.Where does the 24 solar terms originate from?<br />
<br />
3. What are the eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes？<br />
<br />
4.When was the 24 solar terms included in the World Intangible Cultural Heritage List? <br />
<br />
5.What are the food customs in the Beginning of Spring?<br />
<br />
6.Do you konw any other folklore of the 24 solar terms?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, Spring Equinox and Autumn Equinox.<br />
<br />
2.It originated in the Yellow River valley.<br />
<br />
3.Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter, and Winter Solstice<br />
<br />
4.In 2016.<br />
<br />
5.People eat spring pancakes, spring rolls, or a few mouthfuls of carrots.<br />
<br />
6.It is said that people should eat dumplings on the Start of Winter. There is a story about the birth of dumplings. According to legend, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, the "Sage of Medicine", invented the "jiaozi" to treat frostbite patients with frostbitten ears. He cooked mutton, hot peppers and herbs to dispel the cold and warm up the body. He wrapped these ingredients into a dough skin and made them into an ear shape. Since then, people have learned to make the food which became known as "dumpling" or jiaozi. Today there is still a saying that goes "Eat dumplings on Start of Winter Day, or your ears will be frostbitten."<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Yuan Jix. 袁济喜. (2016). "中华思想文化术语(3)”[Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture]. 外语教学与研究出版社”[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Belarusian Literature and Arts Press] (Yuan Jix 2016:)<br />
<br />
Wang Jiahua. 王加华.（2019.9.20）"China Social Science Network" http://www.cssn.cn/zx/bwyc/201909/t20190920_4974497_1.shtml<br />
<br />
Ding Yiming. Chang He. 丁一鸣. 常河（2020.11.17）"Chinanews" http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2020/11-17/9340057.shtml <br />
<br />
He Yannan. Zou Yating. 贺亚楠. 邹雅婷. (2020.2.4) “China Daily” https://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202002/04/WS5e3901a9a3107bb6b579d18d.html<br />
<br />
==Literature, Yue Fu - Hu Baihui 胡百辉 202070080590 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Collection of Yue Fu Poetry《乐府诗集》===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
'''1.Brief introduction'''<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' is the essence of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties folk songs. The content is very rich, reflecting a wide range of social life. It mainly collects more than 5000 Yuefu songs from Han, Wei to Tang and Five Dynasties, as well as from pre Qin to the end of Tang Dynasty. "Yuefu", originally the name of the institution in charge of music, was first set up in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and there were also Yuefu institutions in the northern and Southern Dynasties. Its specific task is to make music score, collect lyrics and train music talents. There are two sources of lyrics: one is specially written by literati, the other is collected from Chinese folk. Later, people called the poems collected by Yuefu organs as Yuefu, or Yuefu Poems and Yuefu songs, so Yuefu changed from official name to poetic name. (Wu Ting 2007, 20)<br />
<br />
'''2.About the author'''<br />
<br />
Guo Maoqian (1041-1099) was born in Xucheng, Yunzhou, Song Dynasty. He is the grandson of Guo Quan, and the son of Guo Yuanming. Song Shenzong Yuanfeng seven years (1084), Cao joined the army in Henan Province. He wrote a hundred volumes of ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'', which was handed down from generation to generation. (Wu Ting 2007, 22)<br />
<br />
'''3.Content introduction'''<br />
<br />
It divides Yuefu Poems into 12 categories, including suburban Temple songs, Yan shooting songs, drum songs, horizontal blowing songs, Xianghe songs, etc. In these different kinds of music, the songs of Jiaomiao and yanshe belong to the movements used by the imperial court, and their ideological content and artistic skills are less desirable. There are also some works with poor artistic value. But generally speaking, most of the poems it collects are excellent folk songs and poems written by scholars with old Yuefu titles. In the existing poetry collection, "Yuefu Poetry Collection" is an important book with the most complete collection of all kinds of Yuefu Poetry in the past dynasties. (Wu Ting 2007, 30)<br />
<br />
====Masterpieces====<br />
<br />
'''1.''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'''''<br />
<br />
''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' is the first long narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature, and it is also the peak work in the history of Yuefu Poetry. It is based on a marriage tragedy in Lujiang County during the reign of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The poem has more than 350 sentences and 1700 words. It mainly tells the story of Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi's forced separation and suicide. It accuses the cruelty and ruthlessness of feudal ethics and praises their sincere feelings and rebellious spirit. As the longest narrative poem in ancient history, the story of Peacock Flying Southeast is complicated and simple, and its characters are vividly portrayed. It not only portrays the image of Jiaoliu and his wife, but also depicts the stubbornness of Jiao's mother and the arrogance of brother Liu. At the end of the article, the myth of Liu Lanzhi and Jiao Zhongqing turning into mandarin ducks after their death is conceived, and the people's strong desire for love freedom and happy life is placed. (Wu Ting 2007, 36)<br />
<br />
'''2.''Mulan Poetry'''''<br />
<br />
''Mulan poetry'' is a folk song in the Northern Dynasty of China. This is a long narrative poem about a girl named Mulan. She disguised herself as a man, joined the army for her father, established meritorious service in the battlefield, and refused to be an official after returning to the imperial court. She only wanted to go home for reunion. She warmly praised the woman's brave and kind-hearted quality, her enthusiasm for defending her country and her brave and fearless spirit. "Mulan is a girl" is used to conceive the legend of Mulan, which is full of romantic color. The detailed arrangement is very ingenious. Although it is about war theme, it is mainly about the life scene and children's mood, which is full of life flavor. It describes the character's mood by means of character's question and answer, narration, parallelism, antithesis and intertextuality, which is vivid, detailed and full of vitality. Therefore, it has strong artistic appeal. (Wu Ting 2007, 41)<br />
<br />
====Evaluation====<br />
<br />
'''1.Contributions'''<br />
<br />
The important contribution of it is to collect and classify the songs of past dynasties according to their tunes, so that many works can be compiled into books. This provides great convenience for the collation and research of Yuefu Poetry. For example, some excellent Chinese folk songs of Han Dynasty, such as "Moshangsang", "dongmenxing", were collected and recorded by editors. In particular, some ancient folk songs and proverbs are scattered in various historical books and some academic works, and miscellaneous ballads and sayings are mostly ignored by the former. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105) <br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry'' introduces and explains in detail the origin, nature and musical instruments used in the singing of various kinds of music. So that many precious historical materials can be preserved. This is of great value to the study of literature history and music history.There are narrative poems and lyric poems in Yuefu Poems, and the achievements of narrative poems are more prominent. ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Songs of Chu'' are basically lyric poems, and sometimes narrative is interspersed in the process of lyric, but narrative is attached to lyric. The emergence of Yuefu narrative poetry marks the maturity of Chinese ancient narrative poetry, and it is all caused by sadness and happiness. When choosing narrative objects, the creative subject is good at finding poetic scenes and absorbing pictures in time. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 105)<br />
<br />
'''2.Shortcomings'''<br />
<br />
There are some imperfections in ''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''. For example, Ji Yun in the Qing Dynasty pointed out that it was not appropriate to include some literati poems in the titles of Yuefu. In addition, because of its emphasis on melody, the recorded songs are often inconsistent with the description of tunes. But on the whole, as an ancient Chinese literature, this giant has made a certain contribution. (Yu Yizhi 2002, 107)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Wu Ting 吴婷. (2007). 乐府诗集引用的音乐文献研究 [A study of music documents cited in ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry'']. Nanchang:Nanchang University 南昌大学 (12) 20-41.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:06, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Yizhi 喻意志. (2002). 乐府诗集成书研究 [A study on the compilation of the ''Collection of Yuefu Poertry'']. Shanghai:Shanghai Normal University 上海师范大学 (10)105-107.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
''Collection of Yue Fu Poetry''《乐府诗集》<br />
<br />
Jiaomiao songs郊庙歌辞<br />
<br />
Yanshe songs燕射歌辞<br />
<br />
Guchui drum songs鼓吹曲辞<br />
<br />
Hengchui songs横吹曲辞<br />
<br />
Xianghe songs相和歌辞<br />
<br />
''The Peacock Flies to Southeast'' 《孔雀东南飞》<br />
<br />
''Mulan Poetry''《木兰辞》--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:24, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1.When was Yuefu Poetry compiled？<br />
<br />
2.Which institution did "Yuefu" belong to?<br />
<br />
3.What are ''The Peacock Flies to Southeast''based on?--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:34, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1.In Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
2.It belongs to the institution in charge of music.<br />
<br />
3.It is based on a marriage tragedy.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 10:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cuisines - Eight Major Cuisines in China - Hu Jin 胡瑾 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center>胡瑾，202070080591.</center><br />
===Eight Major Cuisines of China===<br />
<br />
====1. A Brief Introduction About Chinese Cuisines====<br />
<br />
As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's food culture began to take shape. At that time, Tai Gongwang was the most representative. In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period under the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, the flavors of North and South dishes showed differences. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the southern cuisine and the northern cuisine formed their own systems. In the Southern Song Dynasty, sweet in south and salty in north was formed. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Cantonese Cuisine, and Su Cuisine became the most influential local dishes at that time, and they were called the "four major cuisines." By the end of the Qing Dynasty, four new local cuisines, Zhejiang Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine, were differentiated and formed, which together constituted the "eight major cuisines" of traditional Chinese cuisine. (Lv Xiaomin 2009, 64)<br />
<br />
====2. The Classification of Chinese Cuisines====<br />
<br />
China covers a large territory and has many nationalities, hence a variety of Chinese food with different but fantastic and mouthwatering flavors. Since China's local dishes have their own typical characteristics, generally, Chinese food can be roughly divided into eight regional cuisines, which has been widely accepted. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 34)<br />
<br />
=====2.1 Shandong Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Consisting of Jinan Cuisine and Jiaodong Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, clear, pure and not greasy, is characterized by its emphasis on aroma, freshness, crispness and tenderness. Shallot and garlic are usually used as seasonings so Shangdong dishes tastes pungent usually. Besides, Soups are given much emphasis in Shangdong dishes. Thin soup features clear and fresh while creamy soup looks thick and tastes strong. Jinan Cuisine is adept at deep-frying, grilling, frying and stir-frying while Jiaodong division is famous for cooking seafood with fresh and light taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 45)<br />
<br />
=====2.2 Sichuan Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Sichuan Cuisine, known often in the West as Szechuan Cuisine, is one of the most famous Chinese cuisines in the world. Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan Cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical and exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques. The major Sichuan dishes include Kung Pao Chicken and Bean Sauce Tofu. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 48)<br />
<br />
=====2.3 Guangdong Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Tasting clear, light, crisp and fresh, Guangdong Cuisine, familiar to Westerners, usually chooses raptors and beasts to produce originative dishes. Its basic cooking techniques include roasting, stir-frying, sauteing, deep-frying, braising, stewing and steaming. Among them steaming and stir-frying are more commonly applied to preserve the natural flavor. Cantonese are known to have an adventurous palate, able to eat many different kinds of meats and vegetables, which originate from other parts of the world. It doesn't use much spice, just bringing out the natural flavor of the vegetables and meats. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 52)<br />
<br />
=====2.4 Fujian Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Consisting of Fuzhou Cuisine, Quanzhou Cuisine and Xiamen Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine is distinguished for its choice of seafood, beautiful color and magic taste of sweet, sour, salty and savory. The most distinct feature is their "pickled taste". (Shi Hongmei 2009, 55)<br />
<br />
=====2.5 Jiangsu Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Jiangsu Cuisine, also called Huaiyang Cuisine, is popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River. Aquatics as the main ingredients, it stresses the freshness of materials. Its carving techniques are delicate, of which the melon carving technique is especially well known. Cooking techniques consist of stewing, braising, roasting, simmering, etc. The flavor of Huaiyang Cuisine is light, fresh, sweet and delicate. Jiangsu Cuisine is well-known for its careful selection of ingredients, its methodology of meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
=====2.6 Zhejiang Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Comprising local cuisines of Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shaoxing, Zhejiang Cuisine, not greasy, wins its reputation for freshness, tenderness, softness, smoothness of its dishes with mellow fragrance. And Hangzhou Cuisine is the most famous one among the three. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 62)<br />
<br />
=====2.7 Hunan Cuisine=====<br />
Hunan Cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi Coteau. It characterizes itself by thick and pungent flavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are usually necessities in this division. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 65)<br />
<br />
=====2.8 Anhui Cuisine=====<br />
<br />
Anhui Cuisine focuses much more on the temperature in cooking. Its major cooking methods are braising and stewing. Often hams and sugar will be added to improve taste and flavour of the dishes. (Shi Hongmei 2009, 68)<br />
<br />
====3. A Comparison of Chinese-Western Diet Culture====<br />
<br />
Chinese and western cultures have always been two major factions in the world culture, and diet plays a very important role in the two cultures. The differences in cultures create the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures. So there are many differences between Chinese and Western food under the two different cultural backgrounds.(Caihua 2009, 56)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the western diet is mainly based on flour, with abundant raw materials, and its cooking method is simpler than that in China. But it also pays great attention to taste. Besides, western diet takes nutrition as the highest criterion, with special emphasis on the nutritional components of food. For example, whether the contents of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and various inorganic elements are properly matched, whether the heat supply is just right, whether these nutritional components can be fully absorbed by eaters and whether there are other side effects. (Caihua 2009, 55)<br />
<br />
However, Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. The purpose of Chinese people's diet is not only to satisfy their hunger, but also to satisfy their desire for delicious food, which brings pleasure to both their body and mind. Compared with Chinese diet which pays attention to taste, western diet is a rational diet. Furthermore, westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. For Chinese, one should eat the food while it is still hot. What’s more, westerners believe that dishes are hunger-filled, so they specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. (Caihua 2009, 56)<br />
<br />
There are also differences in the names of dishes. Many Chinese dishes often contain a lot of historical and cultural information. For example, Dongpo Meat(Braised Dongpo Pork) is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty. Some dishes are also related to allusions and legends, for example, Fotiaoqiang(Buddha jumps over the wall) is a legend. In contrast, the names of western food are much simpler. For example, fried chicken legs, hamburgers and seafood soup are almost all named after the raw materials and cooking methods. (Caihua 2009, 57)<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<br />
Bi Jiwan 毕继万. (1999). 跨文化非语言交际 [Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 78-83.<br />
<br />
Cai Hua 蔡华. (2009). 试论中西饮食文化的差异 [On the Differences between Chinese and Western Food Culture]. ''邵阳学院学报'' Journal of Shaoyang University 56-67.<br />
<br />
Du Xuezeng 杜学增. (1999). 中英文化习俗比较 [Comparison of Chinese and English Cultural Customs]. ''外语教学与研究出版社'' Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 212-217.<br />
<br />
Lv Xiaomi, Ding Xiao, Dai Yangyong 吕晓敏, 丁骁, 代养勇. (2008). 中国八大菜系的形成历程和背景 [The Formation Process and Background of Eight Major Cuisines in China ]. ''中国食物与营养'' Food and Nutrition in China (10) 62－64．<br />
<br />
Shi Hongmei 史红梅. (2009). 地理教学中我国地域饮食文化差异研究 [Study on the Differences of Regional Diet Culture in Geography Teaching in China]. ''河北师范大学'' Hebei Normal University 34-68.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
pot-stewed fowl 卤味<br />
<br />
stewing and simmering 炖，煨<br />
<br />
prickly ash 花椒<br />
<br />
fermented soybean 豆鼓<br />
<br />
Braised Dongpo Pork 东坡肉<br />
<br />
Buddha Jumps over the Wall 佛跳墙<br />
<br />
Kung Pao Chicken 宫保鸡丁<br />
<br />
Bean Sauce Tofu 麻婆豆腐<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
1. How many types of cuisines are there in china?<br />
<br />
2. What’s differences between Chinese and western diets?<br />
<br />
3. What is the origin of Dongpo Meat?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
1. Eight<br />
<br />
2. 1. The western cooking method is simpler than that in China. 2. Western diet pays attention to the nutrition while Chinese cuisine pays more attention to the color, aroma and taste of dishes. 3. Western diet is a more rational diet. 4. Westerners prefer cold dishes while Chinese like hot food. 5. Westerners specialize in "hard dishes" such as large pieces of meat and whole chickens; while Chinese mainly eat lots of vegetables and little meat. 6. There are also differences in names of dishes. <br />
<br />
3. It is said to be cooked according to recipes handed down by Su Dongpo, a literary giant in Song Dynasty.<br />
<br />
==Folk Art: Chinese Paper-cutting - Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪 202070080636 MTI 英语口译 ==<br />
<br />
===Chinese Paper-cutting 剪纸===<br />
<br />
===Text===<br />
<br />
====Introduction====<br />
<br />
With a long history, the Chinese paper-cutting could be dated back to 2000 years ago according to the archaeological records. It originated in ancient ancestor worship activities in which people pray for their ancestors and gods. Later, with the widespread paper-cutting techniques and people’s growing love, it gradually served as the decorations for the doors, walls, mirrors, lanterns and so on. Nowadays, paper-cutting has already become an integral part of Chinese traditional culture and serves as a window of the Chinese folk culture. (Jiao 2016, 3)<br />
<br />
====History====<br />
<br />
[[File:The Earliest Paper-cutting Found in Turfan.jpg|250px|thumb|right| The Earliest Paper-cutting Found in Turfan, image from www.Chinawriter.com.cn Click[http://www.chinawriter.com.cn/n1/2019/0115/c404102-30538973.html] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
The skill of cutting and carving appeared way before the invention of paper, and a number of materials, from the bark, leaves and animal skin, to later silk, were cut into certain shapes to decorate things, which laid a solid foundation for the art of paper-cutting. (Li & Zhang 2015, 7)<br />
<br />
As the paper is not easy to preserve, few of the paper works could survive to modern times. “The earliest such work surviving are five examples dating from the Northern Dynasties period (386-581), unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.” (Lu 2002, 8)<br />
<br />
In the Tang dynasty the custom of paper-cutting began to be popular, and the handicraft man cut paper to different shapes, each given a special name. Namely, the shape of square was named “Fangsheng”, the flower-shaped “Huasheng”, the people-shaped “Rensheng”. Two pieces of “Huasheng”, which were the remains in the Tang Dynasty, are preserved now in Shōsō-in in Japan. (Li & Zhang 2015, 7-8)<br />
<br />
By the Song Dynasty, with the prosperous economy and culture, in addition to daily decoration, paper-cutting was used in other crafts such as porcelain and blue calico. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
The art of paper-cutting became mature in Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. There emerged well designed paper-cutting works in the Yuan dynasty, and collectors began to collect paper-cutting as artworks. By the Ming Dynasty, the application of paper-cutting became even wider, with clip gauze lantern as a representative. It is a lantern with paper-cutting clipped in, candlelight reflecting the pattern. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
Since its birth, the art of paper-cutting has never been interrupted. In its long history, it evolved with pottery, printing, dyeing, and other forms of art, being an indispensable part of people’s life. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
====Five Regions====<br />
<br />
The distribution of Chinese folk paper-cutting, combining with the historical changes, geographical and ecological environment changes, cultural development differences, and so on, can be divided into five regions. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Northeast Changbai Mountains region: It mainly covers the Changbai Mountain area in Heilongjiang Province and Liaoning Province. As the birthplace of the nation of Man, the paper-cutting here herited the culture and customs of Man. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Yellow river basin region: With the north of Shaanxi' paper-cutting as the center, it is simple but more expressive because of its rough lines and designs. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Yangtze River basin region: It covers paper-cutting in the Provinces of Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu. Influenced by folk farming culture and the Confucian culture in the Han dynasty, paper-cutting in this region is in the rough in shape but bears a sense of delicacy. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
The southeastern coastal region: It is highlighted by the paper-cutting of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. This region, more affluent. Paper-cutting creation, especially in Zhejiang Jinhua, Guangdong Foshan as the representative, in the history of cultural development, the vein is also more distinct, its aesthetic interest tends to be elegant and common appreciated. (Wang 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Southwestern minority region: It is characterized by paper-cutting in the minorities in Provinces of Yunan and Guizhou. Many paper-cuttings are combined with embroidery patterns. The religious beliefs of this region obviously involved in the art of paper-cutting. (Wang 2006, 107)<br />
<br />
====Categories====<br />
<br />
[[File: Dyed Paper-cutting.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Dyed Paper-cutting, image from 360baike. Click [https://baike.so.com/doc/2408800-2546694.html] for original source.]]<br />
<br />
There are various ways to make paper-cutting works, including folding paper-cutting, smoked paper-cutting, color-blocking paper-cutting, and copper-lined paper-cutting, but the most common ones are mono-colored and dot-colored. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
Mono-colored paper-cutting refers to paper-cuttings cut or curved with a single-colored paper, mostly in red. The Chinese revered red since ancient times, and whenever there are grand celebration ceremonies or festivals, red is the main color, demonstrating warmth, passion, brightness, and happiness. Besides red, mono-colored paper-cutting is also available in black or other colors, which are used according to different circumstances, among which white paper-cutting is mostly used, as it could serve as the base sample for embroidery. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
Dyed paper-cutting is also called dotted paper cuttings. The handicraftsman would mostly choose Xuan paper as the material, a kind of thin white paper that absorbs water easily. Twenty or thirty pieces of such paper are put into a pile and the pattern is carved out with a knife. Then the mass of paper is dyed. The colors become rich and elegant after dying, with endless changes and a strong local flavor. The dyed paper-cutting is mainly found in Hebei, Shanxi, and Guangdong Provinces, among which the dotted paper cuttings in the Wei County, Hebei owns a very unique style. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
====Themes====<br />
<br />
Folk paper-cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions, totem worship, and religious beliefs. Its connection with the major festivals and traditional customs finds its full expression in every aspect of life. Paper-cutting is an essential folk activity in the villages. Traditionally, on the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month, women "drop their hoes and pick up scissors to cut papers"; on the 28th, flowers are pasted on the windows. On this day, every family paste window decorations, new year’s pictures, and Spring Festival couplets to create a lively environment for the new year. (Li & Zhang 2015, 8)<br />
<br />
It is the rural working women who design and create the majority of the delicate paper-cuttings. When they are five or six years old or seven or eight years old, they begin to follow their mothers and grandmothers to learn paper-cutting. Mothers would pass on their treasured paper-cutting patterns to their daughters and daughters-in-law as family heirlooms. This is how China’s folk paper-cutting has been passed down from generation to generation. They devoted themselves to the paper-cutting that are rich in connotations such as prosperity, peace and good fortune, happiness, health, and longevity. It is the inheritance of this spirit that has enabled the art of paper-cutting to last for thousands of years. (Li & Zhang 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Li Youyou & Zhang JIngjuan 李有有&张静娟. (2015) ''剪纸 [paper-cut]'' 北京: 中国旅游出版社 Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.<br />
<br />
Lu Zhongmin. (2002) ''Folk Handicrafts''. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
Wang Minbo 王敏伯. (2006) ''中国民间剪纸史 [The History of Chinese Folk Paper-cut Arts]'' 杭州: 中国美术学院出版社 Hangzhou: China Academy of Art Press.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
color-blocking paper-cutting 拼色剪纸<br />
<br />
copper-lined paper-cutting 铜衬剪纸<br />
<br />
dyed paper-cutting 点染剪纸<br />
<br />
mono-colored paper-cutting 单色剪纸<br />
<br />
smoked paper-cutting 熏样剪纸<br />
<br />
Shōsō-in 正仓院<br />
<br />
Spring Festival couplets 春联<br />
<br />
totem worship 图腾崇拜<br />
<br />
Turfan 吐鲁番<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. Where was the earliest paper-cutting found in China?<br />
<br />
2. How many regions the distribution of Paper-cutting can be divided into?<br />
<br />
3. Which two types of paper-cutting are the most common ones?<br />
<br />
4. What could be the themes of the paper-cutting?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. They were unearthed in Turfan, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.<br />
<br />
2. Northeast Changbai Mountains area, Yellow river basin area, Yangtze River basin area, The southeastern coastal area, and Southwestern minority areas.<br />
<br />
3. Mono-colored paper-cutting and dyed paper-cutting.<br />
<br />
4. Folk paper cutting has a wide range of subjects, including auspicious patterns, historical allusions, mythological dramas, landscapes, flowers, birds, fish and insects, twelve zodiac animals, pavilions, totem worship, and religious beliefs.<br />
<br />
==Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing - Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮 202070080592 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<center>蒋淇玮，202070080592.</center><br />
<br />
===The Chinese Medical Sage - Zhang Zhongjing===<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing ( original name Zhang Ji, 150 to 154 A.D.- about 201 to 219 A.D., courtesy name Zhongjing), was born in Nieyang County in Nanyang of the Eastern Han Dynasty ( located in today's Zhangzhai Village, Rangdong Town, Dengzhou City, Henan Province). He was a famous medical scientist in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and one of the most outstanding medical scientists in Chinese history, who is respected as the Chinese Medical Sage. In his childhood, Zhang Zhongjing admired Bian Que, a preeminent Chinese mediciner, and yearned for medical learning. And he once studied after Zhang Bozu. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing hated officialdom and sympathized with common people. He traveled all over the country for his medical practice, carefully studied the symptoms of typhoid fever, and read widely. After decades of collection and study, he wrote the magnificent book ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which established the treatment based on syndrome differentiation, and became a necessary classic for the study of Chinese medicine in later generations. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)<br />
<br />
This extraordinary man in Chinese history, our immortal medical sage, was once the Changsha magistrate. As the master of superb medical skills and a man of tender heart, he treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month. At that time, yamen's gate would be crowded with a large throng of people of all ages and both sexes. Some of them carried pieces of luggage, having come a long way to be there. All the people waited for him in eagerness. Then, Zhang Zhongjing would open the gate of office and let sick people in, instead of dealing with government affairs, carefully diagnosing and treating the masses one by one. Though confronted with such a heavy workload, Mr. Zhang treated every patient carefully based on syndrome differentiation. He diagnosed them with looking, listening, questioning and feeling the pulse— four ways of diagnosis, as well as saw through the patients' appearance to perceive the root cause of their illness. As making diagnoses so full-heartedly, Mr. Zhang even skipped meals sometimes. (Zhang Deli 2019, 37)<br />
<br />
Later, people called the doctor who sat in the drugstore to treat patients "the doctor sitting in the hall", in memory of Zhang Zhongjing. (Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan 2013, 88-89)<br />
<br />
When talking about Zhang Zhongjing, We have to mention his masterpiece ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'', which is an undoubted groundbreaking and peak work of traditional Chinese medicine. For years of wars and chaos in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, it turned out that various kinds of plagues were prevailing in China. And lots of people were homeless and suffered from epidemic diseases. Thus, Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases. After years of arduous hardwork, this enduring work was finally finished. (Tan Rongzhou 2013, 55-56)<br />
<br />
There is a Chinese saying that goes, " Eating dumplings in Chinese New Year, Great Cold, and Slight Cold ( latter two belongs to 24 solar terms)." But now, except these days and the New Year's Day, many diners also feast in the air-conditioned dumpling parlors in summer. So, how did dumplings, as one of people's favorite, come into being? Speaking of this delicacy, well-respected Zhang Zhongjing has made great contributions to it. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
When a snowstorm was raging, Zhang Zhongjing, a former governor of Changsha, who had resigned from office, was returning to his native town. By the White River, he saw lots of homeless people in rags, with sick looks and frozen ears. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
Back home, Mr.Zhang was still concerned about those poor people. So he developed a recipe to help them ward off cold, called " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup". Then, just on the Winter Solstice, he asked his disciples to set up a shed and a big pot under it in Dongguan, Nanyang, and give each poor person a bowl of soup with two Jiaoers. After drinking this soup, people felt warm and their ears were cured. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
Zhang Zhongjing passed away on the day of the Winter Solstice, and he distributed the "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" for everyone on the Winter Solstice as well. In order to commemorate him, everyone would make dumplings on the Winter Solstice Festival. And it was said that if one ate dumplings on the day of the Winter Solstice, his ears would not be frozen in winter. "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is rarely eaten now, but the custom of eating dumplings on the Winter Solstice every year has been passed down. Besides, the kinds and shapes of dumplings have been greatly improved. (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
In fact, the way of making "Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" is to boil mutton and some cold dispelling herbs in a pot. After cooked, fish and chop them up, then wrap the stuffing in dough wrappers, with their shapes resembling human ears. Later, put them into the pot, and boil them in the original soup. Because of its ear- shaped contour and effect on preventing the ear from freezing, Zhongjing named it "Jiao Er". ( Er means eears in Chinese) There are also a Nanyang folk songs about Jiaoer, saying " not eating Jiaoers in the Winter Solstice, geting frozen ears in the winter cold." (首都医药 2003, 40)<br />
<br />
At first, Zhang Zhongjing, a little boy of 9 or 10 years old, was measuring traditional Chinese medicine, trying to imitate his medical master. At this stage, medicine inspired in him a delightful sensation of wonder, which would shape his lifelong dream of becoming a great doctor like Bian Que and helping the sick. Then, Zhang turned into an adult man, appearing to be in his middle age. He stuck to treating sick people at the gate of the Yamen on the first and fifth days in the lunar calendar. Finally, Mr. Zhang's goatee turned grey and wrinkles crawled on his kind face. However, he still wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases, cured patients and dealt with his favorite— traditional Chinese medicine. (Zhang Maoyun 2014, 19-20)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Medicine, Zhang Zhongjing.jpeg|300px|thumb|left|Click [http://www.zjjk365.com/Ne_d_gci_6_id_37065.html]for original source.]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Nie Hongyan. 聂红艳. (2003). 张仲景故乡的二十四个故事(六) 饺子的来历 [Twenty-four Stories of Zhang Zhongjing's Hometown (VI) The Origin of Dumpling]. ''首都医药'' Capital Medicine (17) 40.<br />
<br />
Tan Rongzhou. 覃荣周. (2013). 张仲景对我国医学发展的历史贡献 [Zhang Zhongjing's Historical Contribution to the Development of Chinese Medicine]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (07) 55-56.<br />
<br />
Tian Yi 天一. (2020). 张仲景:“医圣”之名传天下 [Zhang Zhongjing: the Name of "Medical Sage" Spreads all over the World]. ''月读'' Monthly Read (03) 4-13.<br />
<br />
Zhang Maoyun. 张茂云. (2014). 伤寒杂病论成书年代及仲景生平年代考历[J] [Journal on the Written Time of ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases'' and the Lifeyime of Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国中医药现代远程教育'' Chinese Medicine Modern Distance Education of China (04) 19-20.<br />
<br />
Zhang Deli. 张德礼. (2019). 心系百姓的“医圣”张仲景 [People's Medical Sage Zhang Zhongjing]. ''现代班组'' Morden Group (05) 37.<br />
<br />
Zhao Qingxin. 赵清新. (1999). 万世医宗张仲景 ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''解放军健康'' PLA Health (05) 36.<br />
<br />
Zhen Xueyan, Wang Limin, Liang Yongxuan. 甄雪燕，王利敏，梁永宣. (2013). “医圣”张仲景 ["Medical Sage" Zhang Zhongjing]. ''中国卫生人才'' China Health Human Resources (07) 88-89.<br />
<br />
===Terms and Expressions===<br />
<br />
medical sage 医圣<br />
<br />
''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases''《伤寒杂病论》<br />
<br />
treatment based on syndrome differentiation/ diagnosis and treatment based on an overall analysis of the illness and the patient's condition 辩证施治<br />
<br />
yamen 衙门<br />
<br />
Great Cold ( 24th solar term ) 大寒<br />
<br />
Slight Cold ( 23rd solar term ) 小寒<br />
<br />
look, listen, question and feel the pulse -- four ways of diagnosis 望闻问切<br />
<br />
Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup 祛寒娇耳汤<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
<br />
1. What's the honorable title Zhang Zhongjing addressed as?<br />
<br />
2. What's the official role Zhang once taken?<br />
<br />
3. When would Zhang treat patients for free at yamen?<br />
<br />
4. What's the most well-known and important masterpiece Zhang ever write? What's his motive of writing it?<br />
<br />
5. What's the relationship between Zhang Zhongjing and dumplings?<br />
<br />
===Answers===<br />
<br />
1. Chinese Medical Sage.<br />
<br />
2. Changsha magistrate.<br />
<br />
3. He treated patients for free on the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month.<br />
<br />
4. ''Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases.'' Zhang Zhongjing's motive of writing this book was to lift common and poor Chinese people from the misery of diseases.<br />
<br />
5. Dumplings are derived from the recipe " Cold Dispelling Jiaoer Soup" developed by Zhang Zhongjing.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:53, 2 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118304History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T12:04:43Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
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* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
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* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
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* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
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* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
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Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
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Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
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In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
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Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
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Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
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When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
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The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
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Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
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Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
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<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
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But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
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===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
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还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
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天空里好像布满了，<br />
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闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
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虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
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这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>雷方圆，202070080593.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118290History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:59:44Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
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Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
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Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
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Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
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"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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雷方圆 202070080593<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
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===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118287History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:58:58Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
<br />
In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118282History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:57:40Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
<br />
Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118279History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:57:03Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
<br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
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“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
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Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118274History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:56:32Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
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<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
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探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
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尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
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Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
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Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
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In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
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Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
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Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
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When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
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The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
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Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
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Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
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='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
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==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
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But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
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===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
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还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
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天空里好像布满了，<br />
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闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118272History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:55:37Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
<br />
But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
<br />
Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
<br />
===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
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Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
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Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
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"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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雷方圆 202070080593<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
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===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
<br />
*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Zhang_Jiajie4.png&diff=118270File:Zhang Jiajie4.png2020-12-21T11:54:03Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: </p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
<br />
Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
<br />
In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118267History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:52:39Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
<br />
Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
<br />
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118259History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:50:20Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
<br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
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“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
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Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118253History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:48:43Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
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* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
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* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
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* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
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* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
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* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
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* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
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<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
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探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
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尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
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Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
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Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
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In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
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Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
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Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
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When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
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The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
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Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
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Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
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='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
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<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
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But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
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===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
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Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
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For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
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Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
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The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
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He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
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===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
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It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
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This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
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Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
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This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
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"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118250History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:47:46Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
<br />
But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
<br />
Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
<br />
===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
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Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
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"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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雷方圆 202070080593<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
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===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118246History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:46:54Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
<br />
Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
<br />
===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
<br />
The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118243History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:46:16Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
<br />
Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
<br />
Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
<br />
The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Zhang_Jiajie3.png&diff=118240File:Zhang Jiajie3.png2020-12-21T11:45:06Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: Lei Fangyuan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Zhang Jiajie3.png&quot;</p>
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<div></div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118232History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:42:59Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译 */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
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* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
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* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
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* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
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* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
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<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
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探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
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尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
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Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
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Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
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In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
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还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
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天空里好像布满了，<br />
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闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
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那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
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声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
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“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
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把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
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那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
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也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
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跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
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带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
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虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
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带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
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这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
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对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
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所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
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“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
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Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
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With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
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Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
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===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
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Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
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The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118192History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:25:53Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Strategies for Multimodal Translation */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
<br />
Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
<br />
In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
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* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
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* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
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* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
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* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
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Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
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Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
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In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
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Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
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Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
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When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
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The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
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Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
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Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
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<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
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But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
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===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
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还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
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天空里好像布满了，<br />
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闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
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虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
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这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118190History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:25:05Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Strategies for Multimodal Translation */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
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* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
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* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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雷方圆 202070080593<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
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===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118187History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:24:19Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
<br />
===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
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Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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雷方圆 202070080593<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118183History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:23:23Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
<br />
Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
<br />
But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
<br />
Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
<br />
Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
<br />
===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
<br />
Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
<br />
Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
<br />
Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
<br />
For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
<br />
In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
<br />
*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118180History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:22:51Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
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虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
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这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
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In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
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"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
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“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
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Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
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With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
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Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
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===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
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Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
<br />
After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118178History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:22:07Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118172History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:21:04Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
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<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
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探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
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尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
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Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
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Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
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In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
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The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
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However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
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Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
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Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
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When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
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The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
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Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
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Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
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='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
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==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
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But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
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===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
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有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
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还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
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天空里好像布满了，<br />
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闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
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天空里又像是布满了，<br />
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像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
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颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
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忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
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有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
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有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
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有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
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有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
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有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
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互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
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一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
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但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
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山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
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Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
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罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
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In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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There is one more example:<br />
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那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Zhang_Jiajie2.png&diff=118164File:Zhang Jiajie2.png2020-12-21T11:18:11Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: </p>
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<div></div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118156History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:16:05Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
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Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
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Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
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===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118150History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:14:56Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
<br />
==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118144History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:13:20Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
<br />
Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
<br />
Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118139History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:11:47Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|center|original source.tourists signs]]Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
<br />
Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
<br />
Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
<br />
==Keywords==<br />
<br />
Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
<br />
==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
<br />
Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
<br />
The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
<br />
The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
<br />
Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
<br />
The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118134History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:10:54Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
<br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
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Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
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Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
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Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
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For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
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Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
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At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
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The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
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He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
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===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
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It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
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This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
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Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
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Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
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This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
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Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
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"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
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Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
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Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118130History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:09:51Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Strategies for Multimodal Translation */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
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* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
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===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
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With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118127History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:06:47Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi|thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie2|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie3|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie4|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118124History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:05:43Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
<br />
Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
<br />
In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
<br />
Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
<br />
Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
<br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
<br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi|thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie2|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie3|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie4|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
<br />
==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
<br />
There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
<br />
The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
<br />
The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
<br />
*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118121History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:04:45Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
<br />
Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
<br />
Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
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Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png]]<br />
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Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi|thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie2|]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie3|]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie4|]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
<br />
*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
<br />
*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118119History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:04:05Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
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===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
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Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
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"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png]]<br />
<br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi|thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie2|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie3|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie4|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
<br />
Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
<br />
Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
<br />
Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
<br />
==Keywords==<br />
<br />
Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
<br />
==摘要==<br />
<br />
中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
<br />
==关键词== <br />
<br />
中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
<br />
==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
<br />
Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
<br />
The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
<br />
The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
<br />
Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
<br />
The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
<br />
After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
<br />
==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
<br />
The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
<br />
==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
<br />
The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
<br />
==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
<br />
*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
<br />
*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
<br />
*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118112History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T11:01:55Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
<hr />
<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
<br />
<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
<br />
The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
<br />
Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
<br />
====The Nature of Translation====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
<br />
====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
<br />
====Translation Equivalence====<br />
<br />
From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
<br />
But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
<br />
====Translation Shifts====<br />
<br />
The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
<br />
Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Limits of Translatability====<br />
<br />
Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
<br />
Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
<br />
(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
<br />
(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
<br />
(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
<br />
The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
<br />
This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
<br />
To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
<br />
Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
<br />
According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
<br />
For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
<br />
====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
<br />
The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
<br />
The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
<br />
(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
<br />
(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
<br />
(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
<br />
(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
<br />
The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
<br />
(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
<br />
(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
<br />
(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
<br />
(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
<br />
Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
<br />
====Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
<br />
Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
<br />
In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
<br />
====Equivalent====<br />
<br />
“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
<br />
Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
<br />
Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
<br />
According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
<br />
Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
<br />
====Form====<br />
<br />
The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
<br />
As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
<br />
Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
<br />
Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
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Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
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This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
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The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
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In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
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After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
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As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
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For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
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===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
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===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
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===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
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Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
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Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
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Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
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As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
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He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
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All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
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"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
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“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
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These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
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===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
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Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
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I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
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It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
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This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
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The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
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This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
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Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
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Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
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Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
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Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
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When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
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Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
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From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
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It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
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Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
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For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
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Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
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At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
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The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
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He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
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===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
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It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
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This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
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Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
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Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
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This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
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Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
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"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
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Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
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Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
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In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
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====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
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==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
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For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
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When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png]]<br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
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===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi|thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie2|]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie3|]]<br />
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For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie4|]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
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On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
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Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
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Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
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As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Zhang_Jiajie1.png&diff=118099File:Zhang Jiajie1.png2020-12-21T10:54:29Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: </p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
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尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
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Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
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* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
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* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
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===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
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Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
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This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
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The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
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Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
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Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
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What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
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And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
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Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
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Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
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Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
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The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
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====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
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When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
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And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
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In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
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When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
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The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
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===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
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Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
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J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
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Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
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Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
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Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
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The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
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As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
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Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
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In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
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Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
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"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
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Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
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Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
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Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
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For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
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"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
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Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
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But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
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Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
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Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
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Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
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Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
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===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
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===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
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On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
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He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
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===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
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Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
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Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
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Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
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Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
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==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
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===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
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===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
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===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
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It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
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In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
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This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
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Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
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From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
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O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
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This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
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But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
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At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
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However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
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So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
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Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
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Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
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The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
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Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
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At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
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==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
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From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
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====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
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=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
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Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
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[[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi|thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie2|]]<br />
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All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie3|]]<br />
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<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
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[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie4|]]<br />
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The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
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Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
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It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
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Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
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Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
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Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
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Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
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Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
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Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Zhang_jiajie1.png&diff=118083File:Zhang jiajie1.png2020-12-21T10:49:34Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: Lei Fangyuan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Zhang jiajie1.png&quot;</p>
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<div></div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118081History of Translation Studies 132020-12-21T10:48:46Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: /* Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology */</p>
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<div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br />
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<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br />
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Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br />
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The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br />
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Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br />
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====The Nature of Translation====<br />
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According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br />
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====The Classification of Translation==== <br />
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Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br />
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In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br />
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====Translation Equivalence====<br />
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From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br />
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But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br />
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According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br />
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====Translation Shifts====<br />
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The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br />
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Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Limits of Translatability====<br />
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Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br />
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===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br />
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Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br />
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====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br />
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Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br />
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Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
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(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br />
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(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br />
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(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br />
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The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br />
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This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br />
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To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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====Reader's Response Theory====<br />
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Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br />
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According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br />
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For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br />
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====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br />
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The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br />
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The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br />
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(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br />
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(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br />
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(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br />
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(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br />
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The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br />
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(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br />
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(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br />
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(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br />
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(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br />
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Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br />
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====Meaning====<br />
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Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br />
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Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br />
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Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br />
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According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br />
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In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br />
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====Equivalent====<br />
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“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br />
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Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br />
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Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br />
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According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br />
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Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br />
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br />
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====Form====<br />
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The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br />
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As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br />
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br />
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Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br />
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Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br />
<br />
Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br />
<br />
* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br />
<br />
* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br />
<br />
* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br />
<br />
* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br />
<br />
<center>Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br />
<br />
In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br />
<br />
The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56) <br />
<br />
Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br />
<br />
What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12) <br />
<br />
And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br />
<br />
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br />
<br />
Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br />
<br />
Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33) <br />
[[File:111.jpg]]<br />
<br />
This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br />
<br />
Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br />
<br />
The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br />
<br />
When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br />
<br />
The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br />
<br />
And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br />
'''<br />
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br />
<br />
In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br />
<br />
However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br />
'''<br />
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br />
<br />
In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br />
<br />
When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br />
<br />
Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br />
<br />
The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br />
<br />
When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br />
<br />
The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br />
<br />
As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br />
<br />
Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br />
<br />
J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br />
<br />
Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br />
<br />
Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br />
<br />
Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br />
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br />
<br />
But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br />
<br />
===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br />
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br />
<br />
After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br />
<br />
As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br />
<br />
For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br />
<br />
The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br />
<br />
As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry." (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Three-beauty Theory===<br />
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976) <br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the "Beauty in sense" should be given priority.<br />
<br />
"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.<br />
<br />
Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br />
<br />
Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br />
<br />
Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br />
<br />
For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br />
<br />
===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br />
Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br />
<br />
"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br />
<br />
Firstly, "Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also, "When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And "Resemblance in sense" just concerns the surface structure, but "Beauty in sense" touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br />
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Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. "If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br />
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Lastly, "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain "Resemblance in sound": one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br />
<br />
But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit". "Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br />
<br />
Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:<br />
<br />
Resemblance in form: 1+1<2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br />
<br />
Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br />
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Therefore, "Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br />
<br />
===Three-Transformation Theory===<br />
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". <br />
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Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br />
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For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br />
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Therefore, by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br />
<br />
===Three-Purpose Theory===<br />
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br />
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So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br />
<br />
===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br />
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. "Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br />
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On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br />
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Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? " and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br />
<br />
Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'', he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br />
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In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br />
<br />
He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Theory"]. "Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br />
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br />
<br />
Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br />
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Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br />
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Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br />
<br />
Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br />
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Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].<br />
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Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br />
<br />
Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br />
<br />
Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
===摘要===<br />
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br />
===关键词===<br />
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br />
<br />
He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br />
<br />
As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br />
<br />
Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br />
<br />
"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br />
<br />
It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br />
<br />
All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br />
<br />
"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br />
<br />
The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br />
<br />
“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br />
<br />
"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br />
<br />
These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br />
<br />
===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br />
<br />
I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br />
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br />
<br />
In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
罗摩这样说了以后，<br />
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br />
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br />
就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br />
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br />
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br />
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br />
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br />
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br />
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br />
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br />
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br />
<br />
This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br />
<br />
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br />
<br />
有成群的海豚和蛇，<br />
<br />
还有来回游泳的鱼，<br />
<br />
天空里好像布满了，<br />
<br />
闪闪发光的这些东西。<br />
<br />
天空里又像是布满了，<br />
<br />
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br />
<br />
颜色灰白，水气极重，<br />
<br />
忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br />
<br />
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br />
<br />
有的地方，水流同水流，<br />
<br />
互相撞击，碰在一起，<br />
<br />
一刹那间，流上天去，<br />
<br />
但一转眼，又落下平地。<br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br />
<br />
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。<br />
<br />
山溪中水缓缓流，<br />
流水清澈似天空；<br />
山头像大蟒蛇信，<br />
吐出清水似水晶。<br />
好像喜马拉雅山，<br />
此山辉煌多洞穴，<br />
罗波看那宾阇耶，<br />
就走向那摩陀河。<br />
圣水朝着西海流，<br />
此河水流石上头；<br />
公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br />
豹子、熊罴和大象，<br />
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br />
<br />
Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br />
<br />
Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br />
<br />
Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
我们将何去何从？”<br />
<br />
罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br />
<br />
他心里非常舒畅。<br />
<br />
那些天上的光辉精灵，<br />
<br />
有了形体，多福多幸，<br />
<br />
对罗摩拱手说话，<br />
<br />
声音甜蜜又动听:<br />
<br />
“虎般的人！下命令，<br />
<br />
我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br />
<br />
In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
There is one more example:<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。<br />
<br />
那一位弥提罗的国王，<br />
<br />
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br />
<br />
那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br />
<br />
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br />
<br />
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br />
<br />
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br />
<br />
虎般的人在前面走着，<br />
<br />
带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br />
<br />
这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br />
<br />
对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br />
<br />
所有大地上的鹿群，<br />
<br />
都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br />
<br />
In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language. <br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br />
<br />
With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br />
<br />
Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br />
<br />
===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br />
<br />
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br />
<br />
When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br />
<br />
Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br />
<br />
From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br />
<br />
It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br />
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br />
<br />
Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br />
<br />
For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br />
<br />
But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br />
<br />
He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br />
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br />
<br />
At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC) Meng Ying<br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br />
<br />
The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br />
<br />
He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br />
<br />
===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br />
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br />
<br />
It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br />
<br />
This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br />
<br />
This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br />
<br />
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br />
<br />
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
====Pursue an ideal state.====<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br />
<br />
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:(citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br />
<br />
"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br />
<br />
Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 10:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br />
<br />
Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br />
<br />
"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br />
<br />
In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br />
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br />
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br />
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br />
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br />
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br />
<br />
==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
雷方圆 202070080593<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br />
<br />
It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br />
<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br />
<br />
In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br />
<br />
This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br />
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br />
<br />
Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br />
<br />
From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br />
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br />
<br />
O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br />
<br />
This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br />
<br />
But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br />
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br />
<br />
At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br />
<br />
However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br />
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br />
<br />
So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br />
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br />
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br />
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br />
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br />
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br />
<br />
==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br />
<br />
Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br />
<br />
Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br />
<br />
The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br />
<br />
Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br />
<br />
At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br />
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br />
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br />
<br />
==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br />
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br />
<br />
From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br />
<br />
====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br />
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br />
<br />
=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br />
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br />
<br />
For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br />
<br />
When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br />
<br />
Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br />
<br />
[[File:.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br />
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br />
<br />
===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br />
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br />
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi|thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie2|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Ai Qiyi| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie3|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br />
<br />
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Source| Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie4|]]<br />
<br />
<br />
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br />
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br />
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br />
<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br />
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br />
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br />
<br />
Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br />
<br />
Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br />
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br />
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br />
<br />
Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br />
<br />
Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br />
<br />
Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br />
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Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br />
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From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br />
<br />
As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. Studies in Translatology, (1)22-41. <br />
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SR Roberts. (2006).［The grammar of visual designAustralasian ]. Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2)209-228.<br />
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O'Halloran. (2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4)630-634.<br />
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Royce. (2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ]. TESOL Quarterly, (2)191-205. <br />
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Chen Gang陈 刚. (2004). ''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies ]. Bei Jing: ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红. (2011). 多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research ]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, ( 5) 89 -93．<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007). 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic ]. ''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, ( 1) 1－9.<br />
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Li Jian黎健. (2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br />
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Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br />
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Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br />
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Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br />
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Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br />
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Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br />
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Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br />
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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br />
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==Abstract==<br />
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The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br />
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==Keywords==<br />
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Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br />
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==关键词== <br />
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中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br />
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==Introduction==<br />
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br />
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==Western Translation History==<br />
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br />
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br />
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Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br />
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The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br />
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The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br />
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Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br />
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The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br />
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After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br />
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After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br />
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==Chinese Translation History==<br />
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br />
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br />
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The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br />
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These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br />
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The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br />
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The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br />
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The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br />
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==Similarities==<br />
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br />
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The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br />
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br />
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When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br />
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"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br />
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In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br />
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br />
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==Differences==<br />
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br />
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br />
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There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br />
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The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br />
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br />
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The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br />
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The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br />
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==Reference==<br />
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*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br />
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*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br />
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*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br />
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*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br />
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*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br />
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*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br />
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*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br />
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*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br />
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*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br />
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*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>Lei Fangyuanhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Zhangjiajie1.png&diff=118068File:Zhangjiajie1.png2020-12-21T10:40:19Z<p>Lei Fangyuan: Lei Fangyuan uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Zhangjiajie1.png&quot;</p>
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